{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T01:01:05Z","timestamp":1760058065202,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,10]],"date-time":"2025-03-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1741564800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"European Commission","award":["101136067"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["101136067"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["MTI"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Extended reality (XR) and collaborative robots are reshaping human\u2013robot interaction (HRI) by introducing novel control methods that enhance user experience (UX). However, human factors such as cognitive workload, usability, trust, and task performance are often underexplored. This study evaluated UX during robotic manipulation tasks under three interaction modalities: manual control, XR-based control at real-time speed (RS), and XR-based control at reduced safety speed (SS). Twenty-one participants performed a series of tasks across three scenarios, where we measured usability, workload, flow state, trust, and agency using a subjective questionnaire adapted from SUS, NASA-TLX, FSS, SoAS, and Trust in Industrial Human\u2013Robot Collaboration Questionnaire, and objective task metrics (completion time, errors, and attempts). Our results reveal that RS-based control modes significantly reduced physical workload and improved usability compared to manual control. RS control at real-time speed enhanced task efficiency but increased error rates during complex tasks, while SS mode mitigated errors at the cost of prolonged completion times. Trust and agency remained stable across all modalities, indicating extended reality technologies do not undermine user confidence. These findings contribute to the field of human\u2013robot collaboration by offering insights regarding efficiency, accuracy, and UX. The results are particularly relevant for industries seeking to optimize safety, productivity, and human-centric robotic systems.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/mti9030027","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,10]],"date-time":"2025-03-10T06:59:59Z","timestamp":1741589999000},"page":"27","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Human Attitudes in Robotic Path Programming: A Pilot Study of User Experience in Manual and XR-Controlled Robotic Arm Manipulation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9990-2279","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Oscar","family":"Escallada","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Design Innovation Center (DBZ), Faculty of Engineering, Mondragon Unibertsitatea, Loramendi, 4, 20500 Mondrag\u00f3n, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-7314-907X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nagore","family":"Osa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Design Innovation Center (DBZ), Faculty of Engineering, Mondragon Unibertsitatea, Loramendi, 4, 20500 Mondrag\u00f3n, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2424-5526","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ganix","family":"Lasa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Design Innovation Center (DBZ), Faculty of Engineering, Mondragon Unibertsitatea, Loramendi, 4, 20500 Mondrag\u00f3n, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0848-2131","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maitane","family":"Mazmela","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Design Innovation Center (DBZ), Faculty of Engineering, Mondragon Unibertsitatea, Loramendi, 4, 20500 Mondrag\u00f3n, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-3214-1741","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fatih","family":"Do\u011fang\u00fcn","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Engineering, Bogazici University, Istanbul 34342, Turkey"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2176-5884","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yigit","family":"Yildirim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Engineering, Bogazici University, Istanbul 34342, Turkey"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-7810-0080","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Serdar","family":"Bahar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Engineering, Bogazici University, Istanbul 34342, Turkey"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9597-2731","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emre","family":"Ugur","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Engineering, Bogazici University, Istanbul 34342, Turkey"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gao, Z., Wanyama, T., Singh, I., Gadhrri, A., and Schmidt, R. (2020). From industry 4.0 to robotics 4.0\u2014A conceptual framework for collaborative and intelligent robotic systems. Procedia Manufacturing, Elsevier B.V.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.promfg.2020.03.085"},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"2024007-0","article-title":"Intelligent robotic systems in Industry 4.0: A review","volume":"4","author":"Soori","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Adv. Manuf. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.5430\/ijfr.v9n2p90","article-title":"The Fourth Industrial Revolution: Opportunities and Challenges","volume":"9","author":"Xu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Financ. Res."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sheridan, T.B. (2016). Human-Robot Interaction, SAGE Publications Inc.","DOI":"10.1177\/0018720816644364"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cirp.2017.04.101","article-title":"Human\u2013robot collaborative assembly in cyber-physical production: Classification framework and implementation","volume":"66","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"CIRP Ann. Manuf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/j.promfg.2018.04.001","article-title":"Human\u2013robot collaboration in the MTA SZTAKI learning factory facility at Gy\u0151r","volume":"23","author":"Beregi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Procedia Manuf."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nahavandi, S. (2019). Industry 5.0-a human-centric solution. Sustainability, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/su11164371"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Speicher, M., Hall, B.D., and Nebeling, M. What is mixed reality? In Proceedings of the Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems\u2014Proceedings, Glasgow, Scotland, 4\u20139 May 2019.","DOI":"10.1145\/3290605.3300767"},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Azuma, R.T. (2024, December 04). A Survey of Augmented Reality. Available online: http:\/\/www.cs.unc.edu\/~azumaW."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3597623","article-title":"Virtual, Augmented, and Mixed Reality for Human-robot Interaction: A Survey and Virtual Design Element Taxonomy","volume":"12","author":"Walker","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Hum. Robot. Interact."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jiang, X., Mattes, P., Jia, X., Schreiber, N., Neumann, G., and Lioutikov, R. (2024, January 11\u201315). A Comprehensive User Study on Augmented Reality-Based Data Collection Interfaces for Robot Learning. Proceedings of the ACM\/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction, Boulder, CO, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/3610977.3634995"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Chen, J., Salas, D.A.C., Bilal, M., Zhou, Q., and Johal, W. (2024, December 04). LfD: A Mixed Reality Interface for Robot Learning from Demonstration. Available online: https:\/\/github.com\/CHRI-Lab\/MrLfD_Hub."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, F., Deng, W., and Pham, D.T. (2024). A Robotic Teleoperation System with Integrated Augmented Reality and Digital Twin Technologies for Disassembling End-of-Life Batteries. Batteries, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/batteries10110382"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Steinfeld, A., Fong, T., Kaber, D., Lewis, M., Scholtz, J., Schultz, A., and Goodrich, M. (2006, January 2\u20133). Common metrics for human-robot interaction. Proceedings of the 1st ACM SIGCHI\/SIGART Conference on Human-Robot Interaction, Salt Lake City, UT, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/1121241.1121249"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1561\/1100000005","article-title":"Human-robot interaction: A survey","volume":"1","author":"Goodrich","year":"2007","journal-title":"Found. Trends\u00ae Hum. Comput. Interact."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.2307\/249008","article-title":"Perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and user acceptance of information technology","volume":"13","author":"Davis","year":"1989","journal-title":"MIS Q."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Norman, D.A. (2013). The Design of Everyday Things: Revised and Expanded Edition, Basic Books."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mechatronics.2018.02.009","article-title":"Survey on human\u2013robot collaboration in industrial settings: Safety, intuitive interfaces and applications","volume":"55","author":"Villani","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mechatronics"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Haddadin, S., and Croft, E. (2016). Physical Human\u2013Robot Interaction. Springer Handbooks, Springer Science and Business Media Deutschland GmbH.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-32552-1_69"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1142\/S0219843608001303","article-title":"Human-robot collaboration: A survey","volume":"5","author":"Bauer","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Humanoid Robot."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lasota, P.A., Rossano, G.F., and Shah, J.A. (2014, January 18\u201322). Toward safe close-proximity human-robot interaction with standard industrial robots. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Automation Science and Engineering, New Taipei, Taiwan.","DOI":"10.1109\/CoASE.2014.6899348"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100868","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2019.100868","article-title":"Robotics and automated systems in construction: Understanding industry-specific challenges for adoption","volume":"26","author":"Oyedele","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"10","article-title":"Human-Robot Interaction and Collaboration (HRI-C) Utilizing Top-View RGB-D Camera System","volume":"12","author":"Tashtoush","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Comput. Sci. Appl."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1561\/2300000052","article-title":"A Survey of Methods for Safe Human-Robot Interaction","volume":"5","author":"Lasota","year":"2017","journal-title":"Found. Trends\u00ae Robot."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zacharaki, A., Kostavelis, I., Gasteratos, A., and Dokas, I. (2020). Safety Bounds in Human Robot Interaction: A Survey, Elsevier B.V.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssci.2020.104667"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1993","DOI":"10.1007\/s12369-023-01027-8","article-title":"A Taxonomy of Factors Influencing Perceived Safety in Human\u2013Robot Interaction","volume":"15","author":"Akalin","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Soc. Robot."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lichte, D., and Wolf, K.-D. (2018). Use case-based consideration of safety and security in cyber physical production system. Safety and Reliability-Safe Societies in A Changing World, Taylor & Francis.","DOI":"10.1201\/9781351174664-176"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1109\/THMS.2019.2904558","article-title":"Evaluating Fluency in Human-Robot Collaboration","volume":"49","author":"Hoffman","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Hum. Mach. Syst."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Wang, X., Shen, L., and Lee, L.-H. (2024). Towards Massive Interaction with Generalist Robotics: A Systematic Review of XR-enabled Remote Human-Robot Interaction Systems. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Karpichev, Y., Charter, T., Hong, J., Enayati AM, S., Honari, H., Tamizi, M.G., and Najjaran, H. (2024, January 26\u201330). Extended Reality for Enhanced Human-Robot Collaboration: A Human-in-the-Loop Approach. Proceedings of the 2024 33rd IEEE International Conference on Robot and Human Interactive Communication (ROMAN), Pasadena, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/RO-MAN60168.2024.10731170"},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Brooke, J. (2024, December 05). SUS: A Quick and Dirty Usability Scale. Available online: https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/228593520."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"893","DOI":"10.1080\/10447318.2019.1699746","article-title":"A Systematic Review of a Virtual Reality System from the Perspective of User Experience","volume":"36","author":"Kim","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Hum. Comput. Interact."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-4115(08)62386-9","article-title":"Development of NASA-TLX (Task Load Index): Results of Empirical and Theoretical Research","volume":"52","author":"Hart","year":"1988","journal-title":"Adv. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"D\u00fcnser, A., Grasset, R., and Billinghurst, M. (2008, January 10\u201313). survey of evaluation techniques used in augmented studies. Proceedings of the ACM SIGGRAPH ASIA 2008 Courses, SIGGRAPH Asia\u201908, Singapore.","DOI":"10.1145\/1508044.1508049"},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2024, December 04). Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience. Available online: https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/224927532."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Nakamura, J., and Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2012). Flow Theory and Research. The Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology, Oxford University Press. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Michailidis, L., Balaguer-Ballester, E., and He, X. (2018). Flow and immersion in video games: The aftermath of a conceptual challenge. Front. Psychol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2018.01682"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hassan, L., Jylh\u00e4, H., Sj\u00f6blom, M., and Hamari, J. (2020, January 7\u201310). Flow in VR: A Study on the Relationships Between Preconditions, Experience and Continued Use. Proceedings of the Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, Maui, HI, USA.","DOI":"10.24251\/HICSS.2020.149"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1748","DOI":"10.1016\/j.concog.2012.10.005","article-title":"Exploring implicit and explicit aspects of sense of agency","volume":"21","author":"Moore","year":"2012","journal-title":"Conscious. Cogn."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Caspar, E.A., Desantis, A., Dienes, Z., Cleeremans, A., and Haggard, P. (2016). The sense of agency as tracking control. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0163892"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2017.02.002","article-title":"Having control over the external world increases the implicit sense of agency","volume":"162","author":"Beck","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tapal, A., Oren, E., Dar, R., and Eitam, B. (2017). The sense of agency scale: A measure of consciously perceived control over one\u2019s mind, body, and the immediate environment. Front. Psychol., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2017.01552"},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"(2024, December 01). Meta, \u201cMeta Quest 3\u201d, Meta Platforms, Menlo Park, CA, USA. Available online: https:\/\/www.meta.com\/quest\/quest-3\/."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dogangun, F., Bahar, S., Yildirim, Y., Temir, B.T., Ugur, E., and Dogan, M.D. (2024). RAMPA: Robotic Augmented Reality for Machine Programming and Automation. arXiv.","DOI":"10.1109\/LRA.2025.3546109"},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"159","article-title":"Deciding on the scale granularity of response categories of likert type scales: The case of a 21-point scale","volume":"9","author":"Pearse","year":"2011","journal-title":"Electron. J. Bus. Res. Methods"},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"(2023, November 30). NASA Task Load Index, Available online: https:\/\/digital.ahrq.gov\/health-it-tools-and-resources\/evaluation-resources\/workflow-assessment-health-it-toolkit\/all-workflow-tools\/nasa-task-load-index."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1123\/jsep.18.1.17","article-title":"Development and Validation of a Scale to Measure Optimal Experience: The Flow State Scale","volume":"18","author":"Jackson","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Sport Exerc. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1007\/s12369-015-0333-8","article-title":"The Development of a Scale to Evaluate Trust in Industrial Human-robot Collaboration","volume":"8","author":"Charalambous","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Soc. Robot."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"988","DOI":"10.2466\/pms.1996.82.3.988","article-title":"An Analysis of Criterion Variable Reliability in Conjoint Analysis","volume":"82","author":"Evans","year":"1996","journal-title":"Percept. Mot. Ski."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1177\/014662168901300212","article-title":"Book Review: Nonparametric Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences (Second Edition): Sidney Siegel and N. John Castellan, Jr. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1988, 399 pp., approx. $47.95","volume":"13","author":"Toothaker","year":"1989","journal-title":"Appl. Psychol. Meas."}],"container-title":["Multimodal Technologies and Interaction"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2414-4088\/9\/3\/27\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T16:49:52Z","timestamp":1760028592000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2414-4088\/9\/3\/27"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,10]]},"references-count":50,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3]]}},"alternative-id":["mti9030027"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mti9030027","relation":{},"ISSN":["2414-4088"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2414-4088"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,10]]}}}