{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,13]],"date-time":"2026-08-13T22:27:11Z","timestamp":1786660031026,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":152,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,22]],"date-time":"2025-09-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1758499200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["MTI"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The increasing use of immersive 3-D technologies in education raises critical questions about their cognitive impact on learners. This systematic review evaluates how electroencephalography (EEG) and eye-tracking have been used to objectively measure cognitive load in 3-D learning environments. We conducted a comprehensive literature search (2009\u20132025) across PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, PsycInfo, and ERIC, identifying 51 studies that used EEG or eye-tracking in experimental contexts involving stereoscopic or head-mounted 3-D technologies. Our findings suggest that 3-D environments may enhance learning and engagement, particularly in spatial tasks, while affecting cognitive load in complex, task-dependent ways. Studies reported mixed patterns across psychophysiological measures, including spectral features (e.g., frontal theta, parietal alpha), workload indices (e.g., theta\/alpha ratio), and gaze-based metrics (e.g., fixation duration, pupil dilation): some studies observed increased load, while others reported reductions or no difference. These discrepancies reflect methodological heterogeneity and underscore the value of time-sensitive assessments. While a moderate cognitive load supports learning, an excessive load may impair performance, and overload thresholds can vary across individuals. EEG and eye-tracking offer scalable methods for monitoring cognitive effort dynamically. Overall, 3-D and XR technologies hold promise but must be aligned with task demands and learner profiles and guided by real-time indicators of cognitive load in immersive environments.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/mti9090099","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,22]],"date-time":"2025-09-22T13:04:44Z","timestamp":1758546284000},"page":"99","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":21,"title":["Assessing Cognitive Load Using EEG and Eye-Tracking in 3-D Learning Environments: A Systematic Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2097-6364","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rozemun","family":"Khan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Anatomy and Physiology, Department of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 1, 3584 CL Utrecht, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2646-9216","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Johannes","family":"Vernooij","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Population Health Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 7, 3584 CL Utrecht, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-3006-8502","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daniela","family":"Salvatori","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Anatomy and Physiology, Department of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 1, 3584 CL Utrecht, The Netherlands"},{"name":"Ombion Centre for Animal-free Biomedical Translation, Yalelaan 62, 3584 CM Utrecht, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Beerend P.","family":"Hierck","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Anatomy and Physiology, Department of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 1, 3584 CL Utrecht, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1007\/s10648-021-09624-7","article-title":"Understanding Cognitive Load in Digital and Online Learning: A New Perspective on Extraneous Cognitive Load","volume":"34","author":"Skulmowski","year":"2022","journal-title":"Educ. 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