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10.13039\/501100011033\/FEDER\/UE","award":["101096526"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["101096526"]}]},{"name":"Spanish MCIN\/AEI\/ 10.13039\/501100011033\/FEDER\/UE","award":["PID2023-146378NB-I00"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PID2023-146378NB-I00"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Network"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The evolution of 3GPP non-terrestrial networks (NTNs) is enabling new avenues for broadband connectivity via satellite, especially within the scope of 5G. The parallel rise in satellite mega-constellations has further fueled efforts toward ubiquitous global Internet access. This convergence has fostered collaboration between mobile network operators and satellite providers, allowing the former to leverage mature space infrastructure and the latter to integrate with terrestrial mobile standards. However, integrating these technologies presents significant architectural challenges. This study investigates 5G NTN architectures using satellite mega-constellations, focusing on transparent architectures where Starlink is employed to relay the backhaul, midhaul, and new radio (NR) links. The performance of these architectures is assessed through a testbed utilizing OpenAirInterface (OAI) and Open5GS, which collects key user-experience metrics such as round-trip time (RTT) and jitter when pinging the User Plane Function (UPF) in the 5G core (5GC). Results show that backhaul and midhaul relays maintain delays of 50\u201360 ms, while NR relays incur delays exceeding one second due to traffic overload introduced by the RFSimulator tool, which is indispensable to transmit the NR signal over Starlink. These findings suggest that while transparent architectures provide valuable insights and utility, regenerative architectures are essential for addressing current time issues and fully realizing the capabilities of space-based broadband services.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/network5030025","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,18]],"date-time":"2025-07-18T10:10:38Z","timestamp":1752833438000},"page":"25","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Exploring the Performance of Transparent 5G NTN Architectures Based on Operational Mega-Constellations"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"5","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5583-4083","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Oscar","family":"Baselga","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Space Communications Research Group, i2CAT Foundation, 08034 Barcelona, Spain"},{"name":"Department of Network Engineering, Universitat Polit\u00e8cnica de Catalunya, 08034 Barcelona, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6371-8595","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anna","family":"Calveras","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Network Engineering, Universitat Polit\u00e8cnica de Catalunya, 08034 Barcelona, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5892-3404","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joan Adri\u00e0","family":"Ruiz-de-Azua","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Space Communications Research Group, i2CAT Foundation, 08034 Barcelona, Spain"},{"name":"Department of Network Engineering, Universitat Polit\u00e8cnica de Catalunya, 08034 Barcelona, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1109\/JMASS.2020.3045851","article-title":"Definition of New Space\u2014Expert Survey Results and Key Technology Trends","volume":"2","author":"Golkar","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE J. 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