{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,27]],"date-time":"2026-04-27T10:28:31Z","timestamp":1777285711909,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":91,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,3]],"date-time":"2021-03-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1614729600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Research Foundation of South Africa","award":["90604"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["90604"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Robotics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Disabilities are a global issue due to the decrease in life quality and mobility of patients, especially people suffering from hand disabilities. This paper presents a review of active hand exoskeleton technologies, over the past decade, for rehabilitation, assistance, augmentation, and haptic devices. Hand exoskeletons are still an active research field due to challenges that engineers face and are trying to solve. Each hand exoskeleton has certain requirements to fulfil to achieve their aims. These requirements have been extracted and categorized into two sections: general and specific, to give a common platform for developing future devices. Since this is still a developing area, the requirements are also shaped according to the advances in the field. Technical challenges, such as size requirements, weight, ergonomics, rehabilitation, actuators, and sensors are all due to the complex anatomy and biomechanics of the hand. The hand is one of the most complex structures in the human body; therefore, to understand certain design approaches, the anatomy and biomechanics of the hand are addressed in this paper. The control of these devices is also an arising challenge due to the implementation of intelligent systems and new rehabilitation techniques. This includes intention detection techniques (electroencephalography (EEG), electromyography (EMG), admittance) and estimating applied assistance. Therefore, this paper summarizes the technology in a systematic approach and reviews the state of the art of active hand exoskeletons with a focus on rehabilitation and assistive devices.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/robotics10010040","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,3]],"date-time":"2021-03-03T20:33:57Z","timestamp":1614803637000},"page":"40","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":177,"title":["A Review of Active Hand Exoskeletons for Rehabilitation and Assistance"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5574-4064","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tiaan","family":"du Plessis","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical and Mechatronics Engineering, Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria 0001, South Africa"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6060-8200","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Karim","family":"Djouani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"F\u2019SATI, Department of Electrical Engineering, Tshwane University of Technology, Staatsartillerie Rd., Pretoria 0183, South Africa"},{"name":"LISSI LAB, University Paris Est-Creteil, Avenue du General de Gaulle, 9400 Creteil, France"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2012-6765","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christiaan","family":"Oosthuizen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical and Mechatronics Engineering, Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria 0001, South Africa"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Hardiman, G.E.I. 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