{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,1]],"date-time":"2026-02-01T09:47:33Z","timestamp":1769939253899,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":75,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,29]],"date-time":"2022-01-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1643414400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001804","name":"Canada Research Chairs","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["-"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["-"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001804","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000038","name":"Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["-"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["-"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000038","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Robotics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The closed-loop human\u2013robot system requires developing an effective robotic controller that considers models of both the human and the robot, as well as human adaptation to the robot. This paper develops a mid-level controller providing assist-as-needed (AAN) policies in a hierarchical control setting using two novel methods: model-based and fuzzy logic rule. The goal of AAN is to provide the required extra torque because of the robot\u2019s dynamics and external load compared to the human limb free movement. The human\u2013robot adaptation is simulated using a nonlinear model predictive controller (NMPC) as the human central nervous system (CNS) for three conditions of initial (the initial session of wearing the robot, without any previous experience), short-term (the entire first session, e.g., 45 min), and long-term experiences. The results showed that the two methods (model-based and fuzzy logic) outperform the traditional proportional method in providing AAN by considering distinctive human and robot models. Additionally, the CNS actuator model has difficulty in the initial experience and activates both antagonist and agonist muscles to reduce movement oscillations. In the long-term experience, the simulation shows no oscillation when the CNS NMPC learns the robot model and modifies its weights to simulate realistic human behavior. We found that the desired strength of the robot should be increased gradually to ignore unexpected human\u2013robot interactions (e.g., robot vibration, human spasticity). The proposed mid-level controllers can be used for wearable assistive devices, exoskeletons, and rehabilitation robots.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/robotics11010020","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,30]],"date-time":"2022-01-30T00:12:56Z","timestamp":1643501576000},"page":"20","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":21,"title":["Model-Based Mid-Level Regulation for Assist-As-Needed Hierarchical Control of Wearable Robots: A Computational Study of Human-Robot Adaptation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4001-0361","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ali","family":"Nasr","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Systems Design Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada"}]},{"given":"Arash","family":"Hashemi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Systems Design Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3908-9519","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"John","family":"McPhee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Systems Design Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2700","DOI":"10.1109\/TMECH.2020.3044289","article-title":"Human-in-the-loop control of a wearable lower limb exoskeleton for stable dynamic walking","volume":"26","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE\/ASME Trans. 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