{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,9]],"date-time":"2026-04-09T17:16:43Z","timestamp":1775755003830,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":45,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,27]],"date-time":"2022-10-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1666828800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Robotics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This article proposes a mobile robot that is fully constructed and actuated by utilising a pneumatic artificial muscle (PAM). Several features are shown in this design including softness, lightweight, and shape change. The robot that has been designed in this article is constructed with four identical contraction actuators: one pair for steering and moving forward and the second pair for shape-shifting. The proposed mobile robot has the ability to move forward, steer, and shapeshift to navigate through narrow paths. The kinematic for the system is provided for the area of the robot by using the shoelace formula by utilising a Pixy camera to track the coordinates of the four vertices.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/robotics11060118","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,27]],"date-time":"2022-10-27T22:36:17Z","timestamp":1666910177000},"page":"118","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["An Automatic Self Shape-Shifting Soft Mobile Robot (A4SMR)"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Mohammed A.","family":"Al-Ibadi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Computer Engineering Department, University of Basrah, Basrah 64001, Iraq"}]},{"given":"Fatemah K.","family":"Al-Assfor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Computer Engineering Department, University of Basrah, Basrah 64001, Iraq"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0779-8217","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alaa","family":"Al-Ibadi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Computer Engineering Department, University of Basrah, Basrah 64001, Iraq"},{"name":"School of Computing, Science and Engineering, University of Salford, Salford M5 4WT, UK"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alves, R.M.F., and Lopes, C.R. (2016, January 24\u201329). Obstacle avoidance for mobile robots: A Hybrid Intelligent System based on Fuzzy Logic and Artificial Neural Network. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE International Conference on Fuzzy Systems (FUZZ-IEEE), Vancouver, BC, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/FUZZ-IEEE.2016.7737802"},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"2651976","article-title":"Position control of the single spherical wheel mobile robot by using the fuzzy sliding mode controller","volume":"2017","author":"Navabi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Adv. Fuzzy Syst."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shabalina, K., Sagitov, A., and Magid, E. (2018, January 2\u20135). Comparative Analysis of Mobile Robot Wheels Design. Proceedings of the 2018 11th International Conference on Developments in eSystems Engineering (DeSE), Cambridge, UK.","DOI":"10.1109\/DeSE.2018.00041"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ba\u010d\u00edk, J., Tk\u00e1\u010d, P., Hric, L., Alexovi\u010d, S., Kyslan, K., Olexa, R., and Perdukov\u00e1, D. (2020). Phollower\u2014The Universal Autonomous Mobile Robot for Industry and Civil Environments with COVID-19 Germicide Addon Meeting Safety Requirements. Appl. Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/app10217682"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maurelli, F., Dineva, E., Nabor, A., and Birk, A. (2022). Robotics and Intelligent Systems: A New Curriculum Development and Adaptations Needed in Coronavirus Times. Robotics in Education, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-82544-7_9"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1109\/MRA.2003.1256296","article-title":"The wheeleg robot\u2014Control strategies, computing architectures, and experimental results of the hybrid wheeled\/legged robot","volume":"10","author":"Guccione","year":"2003","journal-title":"IEEE Robot. Autom. Mag."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1007\/s43154-021-00059-0","article-title":"Recent Progress in Legged Robots Locomotion Control","volume":"2","author":"Carpentier","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Robot. Rep."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al-Ibadi, A., Nefti-Meziani, S., and Davis, S. (2018). Design, Kinematics and Controlling a Novel Soft Robot Arm with Parallel Motion. Robotics, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/robotics7020019"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1961","DOI":"10.1017\/S0263574714002689","article-title":"Design and locomotion analysis of a novel deformable mobile robot with worm-like, self-crossing and rolling motion","volume":"34","author":"Tian","year":"2016","journal-title":"Robot."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.37917\/ijeee.16.2.8","article-title":"Multi Robot System Dynamics and Path Tracking","volume":"16","author":"Khairullah","year":"2020","journal-title":"Iraqi J. Electr. Electron. Eng."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"9523549","article-title":"Design, Implementation, and Validation of Robust Fractional-Order PD Controller for Wheeled Mobile Robot Trajectory Tracking","volume":"2020","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Complex."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103785","DOI":"10.1016\/j.robot.2021.103785","article-title":"Review of snake robots in constrained environments","volume":"141","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Rob. Auton. Syst."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Buj\u0148\u00e1k, M., Pirn\u00edk, R., R\u00e1sto\u010dn\u00fd, K., Janota, A., Nemec, D., Kuch\u00e1r, P., Tich\u00fd, T., and \u0141ukasik, Z. (2022). Spherical Robots for Special Purposes: A Review on Current Possibilities. Sens., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22041413"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.3390\/robotics1010003","article-title":"A Review of Active Mechanical Driving Principles of Spherical Robots","volume":"1","author":"Chase","year":"2012","journal-title":"Robot."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hou, L., Zhang, L., and Kim, J. (2018). Energy Modeling and Power Measurement for Mobile Robots. Energ., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/en12010027"},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"12","article-title":"IR Sensors Array for Robots Localization Using K Means Clustering Algorithm","volume":"20","author":"Rashid","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Simul. Syst. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jiang, H., Wang, H., Yau, W.-Y., and Wan, K.-W. (2020, January 9\u201313). A Brief Survey: Deep Reinforcement Learning in Mobile Robot Navigation. Proceedings of the 2020 15th IEEE Conference on Industrial Electronics and Applications (ICIEA), Kristiansand, Norway.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICIEA48937.2020.9248288"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1103","DOI":"10.5194\/isprs-archives-XLIII-B3-2022-1103-2022","article-title":"Development of Multi-Sensor Module Mounted Mobile Robot for Disaster Field Investigation","volume":"43","author":"Jung","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"052007","DOI":"10.1088\/1757-899X\/400\/5\/052007","article-title":"Investigation of movement of mobile robot work","volume":"400","author":"Nalepa","year":"2018","journal-title":"IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"1","article-title":"Design and Implementation of a Mobile Robot for Carbon Monoxide Monitoring","volume":"2","author":"Rahmaniar","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Robot. Control"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1267","DOI":"10.1007\/s10514-015-9500-x","article-title":"Modeling curiosity in a mobile robot for long-term autonomous exploration and monitoring","volume":"40","author":"Girdhar","year":"2016","journal-title":"Auton. Robots"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"870","DOI":"10.1016\/j.procs.2015.08.250","article-title":"A Mobile Robot for Fall Detection for Elderly-Care","volume":"60","author":"Sumiya","year":"2015","journal-title":"Procedia Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1186\/s13638-019-1396-2","article-title":"Obstacle avoidance of mobile robots using modified artificial potential field algorithm","volume":"2019","author":"Rostami","year":"2019","journal-title":"EURASIP J. Wirel. Commun. Netw."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hutabarat, D., Rivai, M., Purwanto, D., and Hutomo, H. (2019, January 18). Lidar-based Obstacle Avoidance for the Autonomous Mobile Robot. Proceedings of the 2019 12th International Conference on Information & Communication Technology and System (ICTS), Surabaya, Indonesia.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICTS.2019.8850952"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abdouni, J., Jarou, T., Waga, A., El Idrissi, S., El mahri, M., and Sefrioui, I. (2022, January 18\u201320). A new sampling strategy to improve the performance of mobile robot path planning algorithms. Proceedings of the 2022 International Conference on Intelligent Systems and Computer Vision (ISCV), Fez, Morocco.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISCV54655.2022.9806128"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"C\u00e9sar-Tondreau, B., Warnell, G., Kochersberger, K., and Waytowich, N.R. (2022). Towards Fully Autonomous Negative Obstacle Traversal via Imitation Learning Based Control. Robotics, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/robotics11040067"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7295","DOI":"10.1109\/TIE.2021.3095788","article-title":"Energy-Based Motion Control for Pneumatic Artificial Muscle Actuated Robots with Experiments","volume":"69","author":"Liang","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Q., Liu, G., Yang, T., Chen, H., Qin, Y., and Sun, N. (2022). Dynamic Modeling and Analysis for Parallel Robots Actuated by Pneumatic Artificial Muscles. Control, Instrumentation and Mechatronics: Theory and Practice, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-19-3923-5_3"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1089\/soro.2016.0044","article-title":"Design of a Variable Stiffness Soft Dexterous Gripper","volume":"4","author":"Davis","year":"2017","journal-title":"Soft Robot."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.37917\/ijeee.sceeer.3rd.4","article-title":"The Design and Implementation of a Single-Actuator Soft Robot Arm for Lower Back Pain Reduction","volume":"sceeer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Iraqi J. Electr. Electron. Eng."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Robinson, G., and Davies, J.B.C. (1999, January 10\u201315). Continuum robots\u2014A state of the art. Proceedings of the 1999 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (Cat. No.99CH36288C), Detroit, MI, USA."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1707035","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201707035","article-title":"Soft Robotic Grippers","volume":"30","author":"Shintake","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tibtech.2013.03.002","article-title":"Soft robotics: A bioinspired evolution in robotics","volume":"31","author":"Kim","year":"2013","journal-title":"Trends Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2715","DOI":"10.1007\/s11431-009-0247-5","article-title":"Stability analysis of dielectric elastomer film actuator","volume":"52","author":"Liu","year":"2009","journal-title":"Sci. China Ser. E Technol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14700","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-51308-4","article-title":"Soft mobile robot inspired by animal-like running motion","volume":"9","author":"Park","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al-Ibadi, A., Nefti-Meziani, S., and Davis, S. (2017). Efficient Structure-Based Models for the McKibben Contraction Pneumatic Muscle Actuator: The Full Description of the Behaviour of the Contraction PMA. Actuators, 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/act6040032"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/j.robot.2017.10.010","article-title":"The design and mathematical modelling of novel extensor bending pneumatic artificial muscles (EBPAMs) for soft exoskeletons","volume":"99","author":"Davis","year":"2018","journal-title":"Rob. Auton. Syst."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Aschenbeck, K.S., Kern, N.I., Bachmann, R.J., and Quinn, R.D. (2006, January 20\u201322). Design of a Quadruped Robot Driven by Air Muscles. Proceedings of the The First IEEE\/RAS-EMBS International Conference on Biomedical Robotics and Biomechatronics, Pisa, Italy."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Mavroidis, C., Pfeiffer, C., and Mosley, M. (1999). Conventional Actuators, Shape Memory Alloys, and Electrorheological Fluids. Autom. Miniat. Robot. Sensors Non-Destructive Test. Eval., 1\u201326. Available online: http:\/\/engineering.nyu.edu\/mechatronics\/Control_Lab\/bck\/Padmini\/Nano\/Mavroidis\/ch5-1-dinos-actuators3.pdf."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/09349840209409701","article-title":"Development of Advanced Actuators Using Shape Memory Alloys and Electrorheological Fluids","volume":"14","author":"Mavroidis","year":"2002","journal-title":"Res. Nondestruct. Eval."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"483","article-title":"An efficient optimum design procedure for bicycle rear derailleurs","volume":"17","author":"Hou","year":"1996","journal-title":"Int. J. Veh. Des."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1016\/S0094-114X(97)00045-1","article-title":"Motion analysis of a bicycle rear derailleur during the shifting process","volume":"33","author":"Lai","year":"1998","journal-title":"Mech. Mach. Theory"},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"17","article-title":"Areas and Shapes of Planar Irregular Polygons","volume":"18","author":"Jorge","year":"2018","journal-title":"Forum Geom."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chaki, R., Cortesi, A., Saeed, K., and Chaki, N. (2016). Advanced Computing and Systems for Security, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-81-322-2650-5"},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"1","article-title":"Computing Exact Closed-Form Distance Distributions in Arbitrarily Shaped Polygons with Arbitrary Reference Point","volume":"17","author":"Pure","year":"2017","journal-title":"Math. J."}],"container-title":["Robotics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2218-6581\/11\/6\/118\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:04:15Z","timestamp":1760144655000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2218-6581\/11\/6\/118"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,27]]},"references-count":45,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,12]]}},"alternative-id":["robotics11060118"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/robotics11060118","relation":{},"ISSN":["2218-6581"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2218-6581","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,27]]}}}