{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,2]],"date-time":"2026-01-02T07:49:50Z","timestamp":1767340190271,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":18,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,11]],"date-time":"2023-08-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1691712000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"State of Colorado cybersecurity funding","award":["SENATE BILL 18-086"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SENATE BILL 18-086"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Robotics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>With the improvement of autonomous robot navigation technologies, mobile robots can now be deployed in uncertain, real-world environments. An aspect of autonomous robot navigation in such scenarios is the capability to navigate to a real-time determined (previously unknown) location anywhere in its vicinity. This is especially pertinent for indoor navigation where existing localization technologies such as GPS do not provide sufficient accuracy of target location. In this paper, a controller design is proposed which homes a mobile robot to an object of unknown location using Bluetooth 5.1 Angle of Arrival (AoA) technology. The proposed setup consists of a target object with a Bluetooth beacon and a single Bluetooth antenna array mounted on a mobile robot. The controller uses a hybrid approach to calculating and updating the estimated target position by implementing parallax and vector position calculations from AoA and RSSI Bluetooth data. Simulations with various levels of sensor noise showed convergence to accurate target positions (mean accuracy of 0.12 m or less) in both obstacle-free and obstacle-present environments. The controller can be implemented as a standalone controller by directly commanding robot motion toward the target, or it can integrate with other existing robot navigation techniques by outputting a target position.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/robotics12040115","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,11]],"date-time":"2023-08-11T10:20:16Z","timestamp":1691749216000},"page":"115","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Design of Bluetooth 5.1 Angle of Arrival Homing Controller for Autonomous Mobile Robot"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Katrina","family":"Weinmann","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6937-1956","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Steve","family":"Simske","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Systems Engineering, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5866","DOI":"10.1109\/TPAMI.2020.3046647","article-title":"Weakly supervised object localization and detection: A survey","volume":"44","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Lui, R., Huskic, G., and Zell, A. (2014, January 14\u201318). Dynamic objects tracking with a mobile robot using passive UHF RFID tags. Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, Chicago, IL, USA."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Duan, C., Rao, X., Yang, L., and Liu, Y. (2017, January 1\u20134). Fusing RFID and computer vision for fine-grained object tracking. Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Computer Communications, Atlanta, GA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/INFOCOM.2017.8057161"},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Yu, X., Li, Q., Queralta, J.P., Heikkonen, J., and Westerlund, T. (2021, January 7\u201310). Applications of UWB networks and positioning to autonomous robots and industrial systems. Proceedings of the 2021 10th Mediterranean Conference on Embedded Computing, Budva, Bondenegro."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ledergerber, A., Hamer, M., and D\u2019Andrea, R. (October, January 28). A robot self-localization system using one-way ultra-wideband communication. Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, Hamburg, Germany.","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS.2015.7353810"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cao, Y., Yang, C., Li, R., Knoll, A., and Beltrame, G. (June, January 31). Accurate position tracking with a single UWB anchor. Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, Paris, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICRA40945.2020.9197345"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shule, W., Almansa, C.M., Queralta, J.P., Zou, Z., and Westerlund, T. (2020, January 9\u201312). UWB-based localization for multi-UAV systems and collaborative heterogenous multi-robot systems. Proceedings of the 15th International Conference on Future Networks and Communications, Leuven, Belgium.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.procs.2020.07.051"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"555","DOI":"10.1109\/TCE.2006.1649679","article-title":"Position measurement using Bluetooth","volume":"52","author":"Zhou","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Consum. Electron."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Bandara, U., Hasegawa, M., Inoue, M., Morikawa, H., and Aoyama, T. (2004, January 22). Design and implementation of a Bluetooth signal strength based location sensing system. Proceedings of the IEEE Radio and Wireless Conference, Atlanta, GA, USA."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Y., Ye, Q., Cheng, J., and Wang, L. (2015, January 16\u201318). RSSI-based Bluetooth indoor localization. Proceedings of the International Conference on Mobile Ad-hoc and Sensor Networks, Shenzhen, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/MSN.2015.14"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kumar, G., Gupta, R., and Tank, R. (2020, January 10\u201312). Phase-based angle estimation approach in indoor localization system using Bluetooth low energy. Proceedings of the 2020 International Conference on Smart Electronics and Communication, Trichy, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICOSEC49089.2020.9215307"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hajiakhondi-Meybodi, Z., Salimibeni, M., Plantaniotis, K.N., and Mohammadi, A. (2020, January 6\u20139). Bluetooth low energy-based angle of arrival estimation via switch antenna array for indoor localization. Proceedings of the International Conference on Information Fusion, Rustenburg, South Africa.","DOI":"10.23919\/FUSION45008.2020.9190573"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.1109\/LCOMM.2018.2884464","article-title":"Angle-of-arrival estimation using an adaptive machine learning framework","volume":"23","author":"Khan","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Lett."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pau, G., Arena, F., Gebremariam, Y.E., and You, I. (2021). Bluetooth 5.1: An analysis of direction finding capability for high-precision location services. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21113589"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cominelli, M., Patras, P., and Gringoli, F. (2019, January 25). Dead on arrival: An empirical study of the Bluetooth 5.1 positioning system. Proceedings of the WiNTECH, Los Cabos, Mexico.","DOI":"10.1145\/3349623.3355475"},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Boccadoro, P., Colucci, D., Dentamaro, V., Notarangelo, L., and Tateo, G. (December, January 29). Indoor localization with Bluetooth: A framework for modelling errors in AoA and RSSI. Proceedings of the IPIN WiP Proceedings, Lloret de Mar, Spain."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vasilopoulos, V., Arslan, O., De, A., and Koditschek, D.E. (2017, January 5\u20138). Sensor-based legged robot homing using range-only target localization. Proceedings of the International Conference on Robotics and Biomimetics, Macau, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ROBIO.2017.8324816"},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Haykin, S. (2009). Neural Networks and Learning Machines, Pearson Ed. Inc.. [3rd ed.]."}],"container-title":["Robotics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2218-6581\/12\/4\/115\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T20:31:20Z","timestamp":1760128280000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2218-6581\/12\/4\/115"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,11]]},"references-count":18,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,8]]}},"alternative-id":["robotics12040115"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/robotics12040115","relation":{},"ISSN":["2218-6581"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2218-6581"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,11]]}}}