{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,16]],"date-time":"2026-06-16T05:20:02Z","timestamp":1781587202349,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":27,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,11,27]],"date-time":"2017-11-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1511740800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Robotics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This paper proposes an adaptive Kalman filter (AKF) to improve the performance of a vision-based human machine interface (HMI) applied to a video game. The HMI identifies head gestures and decodes them into corresponding commands. Face detection and feature tracking algorithms are used to detect optical flow produced by head gestures. Such approaches often fail due to changes in head posture, occlusion and varying illumination. The adaptive Kalman filter is applied to estimate motion information and reduce the effect of missing frames in a real-time application. Failure in head gesture tracking eventually leads to malfunctioning game control, reducing the scores achieved, so the performance of the proposed vision-based HMI is examined using a game scoring mechanism. The experimental results show that the proposed interface has a good response time, and the adaptive Kalman filter improves the game scores by ten percent.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/robotics6040033","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,11,27]],"date-time":"2017-11-27T11:07:08Z","timestamp":1511780828000},"page":"33","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Adaptive Kalman Filter Applied to Vision Based Head Gesture Tracking for Playing Video Games"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"6","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7847-3455","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohammadreza","family":"Asghari Oskoei","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science, Allameh Tabataba\u2019i University, Tehran 1489684511, Iran"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,11,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oskoei, M.A., and Hu, H. (2009, January 19\u201323). Application of feature tracking in a vision based human machine interface for XBOX. Proceedings of the 2009 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Biomimetics, Guilin, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ROBIO.2009.5420435"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oskoei, M.A., and Hu, H. (2008, January 22\u201326). Myoelectric based virtual joystick applied to electric powered wheelchair. Proceedings of the IROS 2008, IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, Nice, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS.2008.4650664"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bspc.2014.11.002","article-title":"Adaptive myoelectric control applied to video game","volume":"18","author":"Oskoei","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biomed. Signal Process. Control"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s10462-012-9356-9","article-title":"Vision based hand gesture recognition for human computer interaction: A survey","volume":"43","author":"Rautaray","year":"2015","journal-title":"Artif. Intell. Rev."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2100212","DOI":"10.1109\/JTEHM.2013.2289879","article-title":"Eye tracking and head movement detection: A state-of-art survey","volume":"1","author":"Faezipour","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE J. Transl. Eng. Health Med."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Zhu, Y.M., Yang, Z.B., and Yuan, B. (2013, January 11\u201313). Vision based hand gesture recognition. Proceedings of the 2013 IEEE International Conference on Service Sciences (ICSS), Shenzhen, China."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Ernst, T.M., Prieto, T.E., and Armstrong, B.S.R. (2015). Motion Tracking System for Real Time Adaptive Imaging and Spectroscopy. (9,138,175), U.S. Patent."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"777","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cviu.2012.02.007","article-title":"Pose robust face tracking by combining view-based AAMs and temporal filters","volume":"116","author":"Chen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Comput. Vis. Image Underst."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"42","article-title":"3D HMM-based Facial Expression Recognition using Histogram of Oriented Optical Flow","volume":"3","author":"Kung","year":"2016","journal-title":"Trans. Mach. Learn. Artif. Intell."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1567","DOI":"10.1007\/s11760-014-0612-0","article-title":"Correlation, Kalman filter and adaptive fast mean shift based heuristic approach for robust visual tracking","volume":"9","author":"Ahmad","year":"2015","journal-title":"Signal Image Video Process."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.1007\/s00530-014-0420-y","article-title":"Intelligent visual mouse system based on hand pose trajectory recognition in video sequences","volume":"21","author":"Maleki","year":"2015","journal-title":"Multimed. Syst."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"85","article-title":"Vision based head movement tracking for mouse control","volume":"6","author":"Khandar","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Res. Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jia, P., Hu, H., Lu, T., and Yuan, K. (2007). Head gesture recognition for hands-free control of an intelligent wheelchair. J. Ind. Robot, 34.","DOI":"10.1108\/01439910710718469"},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Lu, P., Zhang, M., Zhu, X., and Wang, Y. (2005, January 26\u201329). Head nod and shake recognition based on multi-view model and hidden Markov model. Proceedings of the International Conference on Computer Graphics, Imaging and Visualization (CGIV\u201905), Beijing, China."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Lu, P., Huang, X., Zhu, X., and Wang, Y. (2005, January 7\u20139). Head Gesture recognition based on Bayesian network. Proceedings of the 2nd Iberian Conference on Pattern Recognition and Image Analysis (IbPRIA\u20192005), Estoril, Portugal."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Lu, P., Zeng, X., Huang, X., and Wang, Y. (2004, January 18\u201320). Navigation in 3D game by Markov model based head pose estimating. Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Image and Graphics (ICIG\u20192004), Hong Kong, China."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Han, Z.J., Ye, Q.X., and Jiao, J.B. (2008, January 8\u201311). Online feature evaluation for object tracking using Kalman Filter. Proceedings of the 19th International Conference on Pattern Recognition (ICPR 2008), Tampa, Florida."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Fagiani, C., Betke, M., and Gips, J. (2002, January 3\u20134). Evaluation of tracking methods for human-computer interaction. Proceedings of the Sixth IEEE Workshop on Applications of Computer Vision (WACV 2002), Washington, DC, USA."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1109\/TCE.2009.4814407","article-title":"Robust digital image stabilization using the Kalman filter","volume":"55","author":"Wang","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Consum. Electron."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Han, B., Christopher, P.C., Lu, T.R., Wu, D.P., and Li, J. (2009). Tracking of multiple objects under partial occlusion. SPIE Defense, Security, and Sensing, International Society for Optics and Photonics.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.814987"},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Yang, H., Alahari, K., and Schmid, C. (2014). Occlusion and motion reasoning for long-term tracking. European Conference on Computer Vision, Springer International Publishing."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mourikis, A., and Roumeliotis, S. (2007, January 10\u201314). A multi-state constraint Kalman filter for vision-aided inertial navigation. Proceedings of the 2007 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, Roma, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/ROBOT.2007.364024"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1190","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jvcir.2006.03.004","article-title":"Video object tracking using adaptive Kalman filter","volume":"17","author":"Weng","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Vis. Commun. Image Represent."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Lucas, B.D., and Kanade, T. (1981, January 24\u201328). An iterative image registration technique with an application to stereo vision. Proceedings of the 7th International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Vancouver, BC, Canada."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Bouguet, J.Y. (2017, November 13). Pyramidal Implementation of the Affine Lucas Kanade Feature Tracker Description of the Algorithm. Available online: https:\/\/pdfs.semanticscholar.org\/aa97\/2b40c0f8e20b07e02d1fd320bc7ebadfdfc7.pdf."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Bradski, G., and Kaebler, A. (2008). Learning Computer Vision with the OpenCv Library, O\u2019Reilly Media Inc."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"DeGroot, M.H., and Schervish, M.J. (2002). Probability and Statistics, Addison Wesley."}],"container-title":["Robotics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2218-6581\/6\/4\/33\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T18:51:25Z","timestamp":1760208685000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2218-6581\/6\/4\/33"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,11,27]]},"references-count":27,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,12]]}},"alternative-id":["robotics6040033"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/robotics6040033","relation":{},"ISSN":["2218-6581"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2218-6581","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2017,11,27]]}}}