{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,5]],"date-time":"2026-05-05T18:27:15Z","timestamp":1778005635807,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":37,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,14]],"date-time":"2018-01-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1515888000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The migration of extensive social groups towards specific spawning grounds in vast and diverse ocean environments is an integral part of the regular spawning process of many oceanic fish species. Oceanic fish in such migrations typically seek locations with environmental parameters that maximize the probability of successful spawning and egg\/larval survival. The 3D spatio-temporal dynamics of these behavioral processes are largely unknown due to technical difficulties in sensing the ocean environment over wide areas. Here, we use ocean acoustic waveguide remote sensing (OAWRS) to instantaneously image immense herring groups over continental-shelf-scale areas at the Georges Bank spawning ground. Via multi-spectral OAWRS measurements, we capture a shift in swimbladder resonance peak correlated with the herring groups\u2019 up-slope spawning migration, enabling 3D spatial behavioral dynamics to be instantaneously inferred over thousands of square kilometers. We show that herring groups maintain near-bottom vertical distributions with negative buoyancy throughout the migration. We find a spatial correlation greater than 0.9 between the average herring group depth and corresponding seafloor depth for migratory paths along the bathymetric gradient. This is consistent with herring groups maintaining near-seafloor paths to both search for optimal spawning conditions and reduce the risk of predator attacks during the migration to shallower waters where near-surface predators are more dangerous. This analysis shows that multi-spectral resonance sensing with OAWRS can be used as an effective tool to instantaneously image and continuously monitor the behavioral dynamics of swimbladder-bearing fish group behavior in three spatial dimensions over continental-shelf scales.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10010108","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,15]],"date-time":"2018-01-15T12:30:36Z","timestamp":1516019436000},"page":"108","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Instantaneous 3D Continental-Shelf Scale Imaging of Oceanic Fish by Multi-Spectral Resonance Sensing Reveals Group Behavior during Spawning Migration"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0261-4482","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dong","family":"Yi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zheng","family":"Gong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"J.","family":"Jech","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Northeast Fisheries Science Center, Woods Hole, MA 02543, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Purnima","family":"Ratilal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Nicholas","family":"Makris","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1734","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1169441","article-title":"Critical population density triggers rapid formation of vast oceanic fish shoals","volume":"323","author":"Makris","year":"2009","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"458","DOI":"10.1038\/366458a0","article-title":"Cod spawning on a migration highway in the north-west Atlantic","volume":"366","author":"Rose","year":"1993","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Nakken, O. (2008). Norwegian Spring-Spawning Herring & Northeast Arctic Cod: 100 Years of Research Management, Tapir Academic Press."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"660","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1121756","article-title":"Fish population and behavior revealed by instantaneous continental shelf-scale imaging","volume":"311","author":"Makris","year":"2006","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1121\/1.3268595","article-title":"Low-frequency target strength and abundance of shoaling Atlantic herring (Clupea harengus) in the Gulf of Maine during the Ocean Acoustic Waveguide Remote Sensing 2006 Experiment","volume":"127","author":"Gong","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gong, Z., Jain, A.D., Tran, D., Yi, D.H., Wu, F., Zorn, A., Ratilal, P., and Makris, N.C. (2014). Ecosystem scale acoustic sensing reveals humpback whale behavior synchronous with herring spawning processes and re-evaluation finds no effect of sonar on humpback song occurrence in the Gulf of Maine in Fall 2006. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0104733"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"366","DOI":"10.1038\/nature16960","article-title":"Vast assembly of vocal marine mammals from diverse species on fish spawning ground","volume":"531","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Becker, K., and Preston, J. (2003, January 22\u201326). The ONR five octave research array (FORA) at Penn State. Proceedings of the Oceans 2003, Celebrating the Past ... Teaming Toward the Future (IEEE Cat. No.03CH37492), San Diego, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/OCEANS.2003.178321"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, D., and Ratilal, P. (2017). Angular Resolution Enhancement Provided by Nonuniformly-Spaced Linear Hydrophone Arrays in Ocean Acoustic Waveguide Remote Sensing. Remote Sens., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9101036"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jain, A.D., and Makris, N.C. (2016). Maximum Likelihood Deconvolution of Beamformed Images with Signal-Dependent Speckle Fluctuations from Gaussian Random Fields: With Application to Ocean Acoustic Waveguide Remote Sensing (OAWRS). Remote Sens., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8090694"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.3354\/meps08266","article-title":"Ocean Acoustic Waveguide Remote Sensing (OAWRS) of marine ecosystems","volume":"395","author":"Jagannathan","year":"2009","journal-title":"Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1121\/1.3037228","article-title":"Empirical dependence of acoustic transmission scintillation statistics on bandwidth, frequency, and range in New Jersey continental shelf","volume":"125","author":"Andrews","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1736","DOI":"10.1121\/1.406739","article-title":"A split-step Pad\u00e9 solution for the parabolic equation method","volume":"93","author":"Collins","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3560","DOI":"10.1121\/1.1993107","article-title":"Mean and variance of the forward field propagated through three-dimensional random internal waves in a continental-shelf waveguide","volume":"118","author":"Chen","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"769","DOI":"10.1121\/1.416239","article-title":"The effect of saturated transmission scintillation on ocean acoustic intensity measurements","volume":"100","author":"Makris","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3659","DOI":"10.1121\/1.4763547","article-title":"Probability distribution for energy of saturated broadband ocean acoustic transmission: Results from Gulf of Maine 2006 experiment","volume":"132","author":"Tran","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"571","DOI":"10.1121\/1.382009","article-title":"Resonant acoustic scattering by swimbladder-bearing fish","volume":"64","author":"Love","year":"1978","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yi, D.H., and Makris, N.C. (2016). Feasibility of acoustic remote sensing of large herring shoals and seafloor by baleen whales. Remote Sens., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8090693"},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Goodman, J.W. (2015). Statistical Optics, John Wiley & Sons."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Bowman, J.J., Senior, T.B.A., and Uslenghi, P.L.E. (1969). Electromagnetic and Acoustic Scattering by Simple Shapes, North-Holland Publishing Co."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00687474","article-title":"Gas secretion and resorption in the swimbladder of the cod (Gadus morhua)","volume":"155","author":"Jones","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Comp. Physiol. B"},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"MacLennan, D., and Simmonds, E.J. (2013). Fisheries Acoustics, Springer Science & Business Media."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1016\/j.icesjms.2003.09.006","article-title":"In situ acoustic estimates of the swimbladder volume of Atlantic herring (Clupea harengus)","volume":"61","author":"Nero","year":"2004","journal-title":"ICES J. Mar. Sci."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"55","article-title":"Sound propagation in the presence of bladder fish","volume":"Volume 2","author":"Albers","year":"1967","journal-title":"Underwater Acoustics"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"635","DOI":"10.1139\/f62-043","article-title":"Physical properties and hydrostatic function of the swimbladder of herring (Clupea harengus L.)","volume":"19","author":"Brawn","year":"1962","journal-title":"J. Fish. Board Can."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1093\/icesjms\/49.3.357","article-title":"Vertical movements of cod (Gadus morhua L.) in the open sea and the hydrostatic function of the swimbladder","volume":"49","author":"Arnold","year":"1992","journal-title":"ICES J. Mar. Sci. J. Conseil"},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Stevenson, D.K., and Scott, M.L. (2005). Essential Fish Habitat Source Document: Atlantic Herring, Clupea Harengus, Life History and Habitat Characteristics."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1080\/00364827.1999.10420439","article-title":"Effects of fish length and condition on spawning migration in Norwegian spring spawning herring (Clupea harengus L.)","volume":"84","author":"Slotte","year":"1999","journal-title":"Sarsia"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1133","DOI":"10.1006\/jmsc.1998.0416","article-title":"Extensive gas bubble release in Norwegian spring-spawning herring (Clupea harengus) during predator avoidance","volume":"55","year":"1998","journal-title":"ICES J. Mar. Sci. J. Conseil"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1920","DOI":"10.1139\/f90-216","article-title":"Acoustic observations of gas bubble release by Pacific herring (Clupea harengus pallasi)","volume":"47","author":"Thorne","year":"1990","journal-title":"Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1016\/S0990-7440(03)00017-2","article-title":"Sounds produced by herring (Clupea harengus) bubble release","volume":"16","author":"Wahlberg","year":"2003","journal-title":"Aquat. Living Resour."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S95","DOI":"10.1098\/rsbl.2003.0107","article-title":"Pacific and Atlantic herring produce burst pulse sounds","volume":"271","author":"Wilson","year":"2004","journal-title":"Proc. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.3390\/rs6010180","article-title":"Feasibility of Ocean Acoustic Waveguide Remote Sensing (OAWRS) of Atlantic cod with seafloor scattering limitations","volume":"6","author":"Jain","year":"2013","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"362","DOI":"10.1139\/f07-013","article-title":"Multifrequency backscattering properties of Atlantic herring (Clupea harengus) and Norway pout (Trisopterus esmarkii)","volume":"64","author":"Santos","year":"2007","journal-title":"Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1121\/1.3514382","article-title":"Interpretation of multi-frequency acoustic data: Effects of fish orientation","volume":"129","author":"Jech","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"816","DOI":"10.1121\/1.1912422","article-title":"Dorsal-aspect target strength of an individual fish","volume":"49","author":"Love","year":"1971","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"548","DOI":"10.1016\/S1054-3139(03)00050-X","article-title":"Modelling the acoustic effect of swimbladder compression in herring","volume":"60","author":"Gorska","year":"2003","journal-title":"ICES J. Mar. Sci."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/10\/1\/108\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T14:51:13Z","timestamp":1760194273000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/10\/1\/108"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,14]]},"references-count":37,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,1]]}},"alternative-id":["rs10010108"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs10010108","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,14]]}}}