{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,14]],"date-time":"2026-02-14T13:09:13Z","timestamp":1771074553392,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,29]],"date-time":"2018-01-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1517184000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"the National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41376109"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41376109"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"the National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41576107"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41576107"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"the National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41176068"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41176068"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"the National Science and Technology Major Project","award":["2016YFB0501703"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2016YFB0501703"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>To obtain the high-resolution seabed topography and overcome the limitations of existing topography reconstruction methods in requiring external bathymetric data and ignoring the effects of sediment variations and Side-Scan Sonar (SSS) image quality, this study proposes a method of reconstructing seabed topography from SSS images with a self-constraint condition. A reconstruction model is deduced by Lambert\u2019s law and the seabed scattering model. A bottom tracking method is put forward to get the along-track SSS towfish heights and the initial seabed topography in the SSS measuring area is established by combining the along-track towfish heights, towfish depths and tidal levels obtained from Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS). The complete process of reconstructing seabed topography is given by taking the initial topography as self-constraint and the high-resolution seabed topography is finally obtained. Experiments verified the proposed method by the data measured in Zhujiang River, China. The standard deviation of less than 15 cm is achieved and the resolution of the reconstructed topography is about 60 times higher than that of the Digital Elevation Model (DEM) established by bathymetric data. The effects of noise, suspended bodies, refraction of wave in water column, sediment variation, the determination of iteration termination condition as well as the performance of the proposed method under these effects are discussed. Finally, the conclusions are drawn out according to the experiments and discussions. The proposed method provides a simple and efficient way to obtain high-resolution seabed topography from SSS images and is a supplement but not substitution for the existing bathymetric methods.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10020201","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,29]],"date-time":"2018-01-29T12:27:56Z","timestamp":1517228876000},"page":"201","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["Reconstructing Seabed Topography from Side-Scan Sonar Images with Self-Constraint"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3796-8405","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jianhu","family":"Zhao","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geodesy and Geomatics, Wuhan University, 129 Luoyu Road, Wuhan 430079, China"},{"name":"Institute of Marine Science and Technology, Wuhan University, 129 Luoyu Road, Wuhan 430079, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9882-7553","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xiaodong","family":"Shang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geodesy and Geomatics, Wuhan University, 129 Luoyu Road, Wuhan 430079, China"},{"name":"Institute of Marine Science and Technology, Wuhan University, 129 Luoyu Road, Wuhan 430079, China"}]},{"given":"Hongmei","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Automation Department, School of Power and Mechanical Engineering, Wuhan University, 8 South Donghu Road, Wuhan 430072, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1691","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2012.725485","article-title":"Assessing the distribution and abundance of seabed minerals from seafloor photographic data in the Central Indian Ocean Basin","volume":"34","author":"Sharma","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fakiris, E., Papatheodorou, G., Geraga, M., and Ferentinos, G. (2016). An automatic target detection algorithm for swath sonar backscatter imagery, using image texture and independent component analysis. Remote Sens., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8050373"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3427","DOI":"10.3390\/rs4113427","article-title":"Evaluation of four supervised learning methods for benthic habitat mapping using backscatter from multi-beam sonar","volume":"4","author":"Hasan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1007\/s10750-014-2017-z","article-title":"Evaluating the use of side-scan sonar for detecting freshwater mussel beds in turbid river environments","volume":"743","author":"Powers","year":"2015","journal-title":"Hydrobiologia"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hern\u00e1ndez, J.D., Isteni\u010d, K., Gracias, N., Palomeras, N., Campos, R., Vidal, E., Garc\u00eda, R., and Carreras, M. (2016). Autonomous underwater navigation and optical mapping in unknown natural environments. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16081174"},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Diaz, J.V.M. (2000). Analysis of Multibeam Sonar Data for the Characterization of Seafloor Habitats. [Master\u2019s Thesis, The University of New Brunswick]."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1007\/s11001-014-9228-6","article-title":"A new method for weakening the combined effect of residual errors on multibeam bathymetric data","volume":"35","author":"Zhao","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mar. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1109\/JOE.2002.808204","article-title":"A new algorithm for automatic processing of bathymetric data","volume":"28","author":"Canepa","year":"2003","journal-title":"IEEE J. Ocean. Eng."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Blondel, P. (2009). The Handbook of Sidescan Sonar, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-49886-5"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1006\/cviu.2000.0846","article-title":"Feature tracking in video and sonar subsea sequences with applications","volume":"79","author":"Trucco","year":"2000","journal-title":"Comput. Vis. Image Underst."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Horn, B.K.P. (1970). Shape from Shading: A Method for Obtaining the Shape of a Smooth Opaque Object from One View. [Ph.D. Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology]."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"690","DOI":"10.1109\/34.784284","article-title":"Shape from shading: A survey","volume":"21","author":"Zhang","year":"1999","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1574","DOI":"10.1016\/j.patcog.2005.03.025","article-title":"Surface radiance correction for shape from shading","volume":"38","author":"Ragheb","year":"2005","journal-title":"Pattern Recognit."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1049\/ip-rsn:19990266","article-title":"Sidescan sonar: A directional filter of seabed texture?","volume":"146","author":"Bell","year":"1999","journal-title":"IEE Proc. Radar Sonar Navig."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Johnson, A.E. (1993, January 27\u201329). Incorporating different reflection models into surface reconstruction. Proceedings of the Unmanned Untethered Submersible Technology Conference, Durham, UK."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00141152","article-title":"Seafloor map generation for autonomous underwater vehicle navigation","volume":"3","author":"Johnson","year":"1996","journal-title":"Auton. Robot."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Langer, D., and Hebert, M. (1991, January 9\u201311). Building qualitative elevation maps from side scan sonar data for autonomous underwater navigation. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, Sacramento, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.2478\/pomr-2013-0033","article-title":"Application of shape from shading technique for side scan sonar images","volume":"20","author":"Bikonis","year":"2013","journal-title":"Pol. Marit. Res."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"443","article-title":"Recovering seabed topography from sonar image with constraint of sounding data","volume":"46","author":"Zhao","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. China Univ. Min. Technol."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"739","article-title":"Recovery of seabed 3D micro-topography from side-scan sonar image constrained by single-beam soundings","volume":"38","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Harbin Eng. Univ."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1049\/ip-rsn:20040262","article-title":"Reconstruction of textured seafloors from side-scan sonar images","volume":"151","author":"Dura","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEE Proc. Radar Sonar Navig."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"382","DOI":"10.1109\/TIP.2006.888337","article-title":"Multiresolution 3-d reconstruction from side-scan sonar images","volume":"16","author":"Coiras","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Image Process."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Eckart, C. (1983). Principles of Underwater Sound, McGraw-Hill. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1410","DOI":"10.1121\/1.393669","article-title":"Application of the composite roughness model to high-frequency bottom backscattering","volume":"79","author":"Jackson","year":"1986","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1049\/ip-rsn:19971311","article-title":"Simulation and analysis of synthetic sidescan sonar images","volume":"144","author":"Bell","year":"1997","journal-title":"IEE Proc. Radar Sonar Navig."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1109\/48.16818","article-title":"A statistical study of acoustic signals backscattered from the sea bottom","volume":"14","author":"Gensane","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEEE J. Ocean. Eng."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"785","DOI":"10.51400\/2709-6998.1935","article-title":"Sidescan sonar image processing: Correcting brightness variation and patching gaps","volume":"18","author":"Chang","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Mar. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Ronald, W., and Marwood, N. (2000). Electro-Optics Handbook, McGraw-Hill."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1109\/48.219531","article-title":"Sidescan sonar image processing techniques","volume":"18","author":"Cervenka","year":"1993","journal-title":"IEEE J. Ocean. Eng."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1016\/S0025-3227(01)00273-0","article-title":"Processing, mosaicking and management of the monterey bay digital sidescan-sonar images","volume":"181","author":"Chavez","year":"2002","journal-title":"Mar. Geol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, J., Yan, J., Zhang, H., and Meng, J. (2017). A new radiometric correction method for side-scan sonar images in consideration of seabed sediment variation. Remote Sens., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9060575"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"487","DOI":"10.1016\/0262-8856(94)90002-7","article-title":"Shape from shading using linear approximation","volume":"12","author":"Shah","year":"1994","journal-title":"Image Vis. Comput."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"John, H.M., and Kurtis, D.F. (2017). Numerical Methods Using MATLAB, Publishing House of Electronics Industry. [4th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2049","DOI":"10.1109\/TIP.2006.873448","article-title":"The fusion of large scale classified side-scan sonar image mosaics","volume":"15","author":"Reed","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Image Process."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"619","DOI":"10.1109\/JOE.2016.2602642","article-title":"A comprehensive bottom-tracking method for sidescan sonar image influenced by complicated measuring environment","volume":"42","author":"Zhao","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE J. Ocean. Eng."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"1067","article-title":"Determination of precise instantaneous tidal level at vessel","volume":"31","author":"Zhao","year":"2006","journal-title":"Geomat. Inf. Sci. Wuhan Univ."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1016\/j.flowmeasinst.2015.06.012","article-title":"On-the-fly measurements of large-drop water level and high flow velocity in the closure gap","volume":"45","author":"Zhao","year":"2015","journal-title":"Flow Meas. Instrum."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nrjag.2016.01.004","article-title":"Seabed sub-bottom sediment classification using parametric sub-bottom profiler","volume":"5","author":"Mohamed","year":"2016","journal-title":"NRIAG J. Astron. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Arthur, D., and Vassilvitskii, S. (2007, January 7\u20139). K-means++: The advantages of careful seeding. Proceedings of the Advances in the Eighteenth Annual ACM-SIAM Symposium on Discrete Algorithms, New Orleans, LA, USA."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1190\/1.2937171","article-title":"Estimating quality factor and mean grain size of sediments from high-resolution marine seismic data","volume":"73","author":"Pinson","year":"2008","journal-title":"Geophysics"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/10\/2\/201\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T14:52:59Z","timestamp":1760194379000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/10\/2\/201"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,29]]},"references-count":40,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,2]]}},"alternative-id":["rs10020201"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs10020201","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,29]]}}}