{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,11]],"date-time":"2026-02-11T18:31:37Z","timestamp":1770834697785,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":47,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,2,13]],"date-time":"2018-02-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1518480000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Spaceborne multi-temporal interferometric synthetic aperture radar (MT-InSAR) is a monitoring technique capable of extracting line of sight (LOS) cumulative surface displacement measurements with millimeter accuracy. Several improvements in the techniques and datasets quality led to more effective, near real time assessment and response, and a greater ability of constraining dynamically changing physical processes. Using examples of the COSMO-SkyMed (CSK) system, we present a methodology that bridges the gaps between MT-InSAR and the relative stiffness method for tunnel-induced subsidence damage assessment. The results allow quantification of the effect of the building on the settlement profile. As expected the greenfield deformation assessment tends to provide a conservative estimate in the majority of cases (~71% of the analyzed buildings), overestimating tensile strains up to 50%. With this work we show how these two techniques in the field of remote sensing and structural engineering can be synergistically used to complement and replace the traditional ground based analysis by providing an extended coverage and a temporally dense set of data.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10020287","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,2,13]],"date-time":"2018-02-13T05:32:19Z","timestamp":1518499939000},"page":"287","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":119,"title":["Multi-Temporal InSAR Structural Damage Assessment: The London Crossrail Case Study"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Pietro","family":"Milillo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Jet Propulsion Laboratory, 4800 Oak Grove Drive, Pasadena, CA 91109, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5996-5830","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giorgia","family":"Giardina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering, University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath BA2 7AY, UK"}]},{"given":"Matthew","family":"DeJong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, Trumpington St., Cambridge CB2 1PZ, UK"}]},{"given":"Daniele","family":"Perissin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Lyles School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6045-5686","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giovanni","family":"Milillo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Agenzia Spaziale Italiana, Contrada Terlecchia, Matera, MT 75100, Italy"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,2,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1109\/36.898661","article-title":"Permanent scatterers in SAR interferometry","volume":"39","author":"Ferretti","year":"2001","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2375","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2002.803792","article-title":"A new algorithm for surface deformation monitoring based on small baseline differential SAR interferograms","volume":"40","author":"Berardino","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1095","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2015.2465166","article-title":"On the synergistic use of SAR constellations\u2019 data exploitation for earth science and natural hazard response","volume":"9","author":"Milillo","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1549","DOI":"10.1785\/0220150152","article-title":"Rapid Damage Mapping for the 2015 Mw 7.8 Gorkha Earthquake Using Synthetic Aperture Radar Data from COSMO\u2013SkyMed and ALOS-2 Satellites","volume":"86","author":"Yun","year":"2015","journal-title":"Seismol. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"143","article-title":"A nation-wide system for landslide mapping and risk management in Italy: The second Not-ordinary Plan of Environmental Remote Sensing","volume":"63","author":"Paci","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cerchiello, V., Tessari, G., Velterop, E., Riccard, P., Defilippi, M., and Pasquali, P. (2016, January 10\u201315). Risk of building damage by modeling interferometric time series. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS), Beijing, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/IGARSS.2016.7730913"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"835","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2016.06.068","article-title":"Characterisation of hydraulic head changes and aquifer properties in the London Basin using Persistent Scatterer Interferometry ground motion data","volume":"540","author":"Cigna","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"677","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2012.2218214","article-title":"Bridge thermal dilation monitoring with millimeter sensitivity via multidimensional SAR imaging","volume":"10","author":"Fornaro","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Lazecky, M., Perissin, D., Bakon, M., de Sousa, J.M., Hlavacova, I., and Real, N. (April, January 30). Potential of satellite InSAR techniques for monitoring of bridge deformations. Proceedings of the Urban Remote Sensing Event (JURSE), Lausanne, Switzerland."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luo, Q., Zhou, G., and Perissin, D. (2017). Monitoring of Subsidence along Jingjin Inter-City Railway with High-Resolution TerraSAR-X MT-InSAR Analysis. Remote Sens., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9070717"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"596","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2016.2584783","article-title":"Nationwide Railway Monitoring Using Satellite SAR Interferometry","volume":"10","author":"Chang","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1353","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2011.02.001","article-title":"Surface subsidence and uplift above a headrace tunnel in metamorphic basement rocks of the Swiss Alps as detected by satellite SAR interferometry","volume":"115","author":"Strozzi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2012.07.002","article-title":"Shanghai subway tunnels and highways monitoring through Cosmo-SkyMed Persistent Scatterers","volume":"73","author":"Perissin","year":"2012","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Robles, J.G., Black, M., and Gomar, B.S. (2016). Correlation Study between In-Situ Auscultation and Satellite Interferometry for the Assessment of Nonlinear Ground Motion on Crosrail London, ICE Publishing. Crossrail Learning Legacy Report."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Mart\u00ed, J.G., Nevard, S., and Sanchez, J. (2017). The Use of InSAR (Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar) to Complement Control of Construction and Protect Third Party Assets, Crossrail Ltd.. Crossrail Learning Legacy Report."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"221","article-title":"Monitoring dam structural health from space: Insights from novel InSAR techniques and multi-parametric modeling applied to the Pertusillo dam Basilicata, Italy","volume":"52","author":"Milillo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37408","DOI":"10.1038\/srep37408","article-title":"Space geodetic monitoring of engineered structures: The ongoing destabilization of the Mosul dam, Iraq","volume":"6","author":"Milillo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2014.03.014","article-title":"Comparison between differential SAR interferometry and ground measurements data in the displacement monitoring of the earth-dam of Conza della Campania (Italy)","volume":"148","author":"Iglesias","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2017.04.009","article-title":"Characterizing post-construction settlement of the Masjed-Soleyman embankment dam, Southwest Iran, using TerraSAR-X SpotLight radar imagery","volume":"143","author":"Emadali","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tapete, D., and Cigna, F. (2012, January 12\u201314). Satellite-based preventive diagnosis: Use of Persistent Scatterer Interferometry on cultural heritage sites in Italy. Proceedings of the Remote Sensing and Photogrammetry Society Conference, London, UK.","DOI":"10.1155\/2012\/618609"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1469","DOI":"10.1080\/15732479.2013.833949","article-title":"An application of the SBAS-DInSAR technique for the assessment of structural damage in the city of Rome","volume":"10","author":"Arangio","year":"2014","journal-title":"Struct. Infrastruct. Eng."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bonano, M., Cal\u00f2, F., Manunta, M., Marsella, M., Scifoni, S., Sonnessa, A., and Tagliafierro, V. (2015). Ground Settlement Assessment in Urban Areas through SBAS-DInSAR Measurements: The Case Study of Roma (Italy). Engineering Geology for Society and Territory-Volume 5, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-09048-1_189"},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Mair, R.J., and Taylor, R.N. (1996). Prediction of ground movements and assessment of risk of building damage due to bored tunneling. Geotechnical Aspects of Underground Construction in Soft Ground: Proceedings of the International Symposium, CRC Press."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"291","article-title":"Ground performance and building response due to tunneling","volume":"Volume 1","author":"Jardine","year":"2004","journal-title":"Conference on Advances in Geotechnical Engineering"},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Viggiani, G., and Standing, J. (2001). Building Response to Tunnelling: Case Studies from Construction of the Jubilee Line Extension, Ciria and Thomas Telford."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Farrell, R.P. (2010). Tunnelling in Sands and the Response of Buildings. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Cambridge]."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"465","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tust.2015.07.016","article-title":"Interaction between surface structures and tunnelling in sand: Centrifuge and computational modelling","volume":"50","author":"Giardina","year":"2015","journal-title":"Tunn. Undergr. Space Technol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"926","DOI":"10.1680\/jgeot.SIP17.P.138","article-title":"Influence of building characteristics on tunnelling-induced ground movements","volume":"67","author":"Ritter","year":"2017","journal-title":"Geotechnique"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1680\/igeng.1997.29233","article-title":"A structure\u2019s influence on tunnelling-induced ground movements","volume":"125","author":"Potts","year":"1997","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. Geotech. Eng."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)1090-0241(2005)131:2(162)","article-title":"Estimation of building damage due to excavation-induced ground movements","volume":"131","author":"Son","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1680\/geng.2006.159.1.3","article-title":"The response of surface structures to tunnel construction","volume":"159","author":"Franzius","year":"2006","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. Geotech. Eng."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Mair, R. Tunnelling and deep excavations: Ground movements and their effects. Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Ritter, S. (2017). Tunnel-Soil-Structure Interaction. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Cambridge]."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Giardina, G., DeJong, M.J., Chalmers, B., Ormond, B., and Mair, R.J. A comparison of current analytical methods for predicting soil-structure interaction due to tunneling. Tunn. Undergr. Space Technol, under review."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"31","article-title":"Crossrail project: Machine-driven tunnels on the Elizabeth line, London","volume":"170","author":"King","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jrmge.2015.03.002","article-title":"UCIMS: Advances in geotechnical construction and performance monitoring","volume":"7","author":"Siebenmann","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Rock Mech. Geotech. Eng."},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"107","article-title":"Geotechnical investigation and assessment of potential building damage arising from ground movements: CrossRail","volume":"147","author":"Black","year":"2001","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. Transp."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2202","DOI":"10.1109\/36.868878","article-title":"Nonlinear subsidence rate estimation using permanent scatterers in differential SAR interferometry","volume":"38","author":"Ferretti","year":"2000","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Perissin, D., Wang, Z., and Wang, T. (2011, January 10\u201315). The SARPROZ InSAR tool for urban subsidence\/manmade structure stability monitoring in China. Proceedings of the 34th International Symposium on Remote Sensing of Environment, Sydney, Australia."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Peck, R. (1969). Deep excavations and tunneling in soft ground. Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Mexico City, 1969, Sociedad Mexicana de Mecanica de Suelos."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"O\u2019Reilly, M.P., and New, B.M. (1982). Settlement above tunnels in the United Kingdom\u2014Their magnitude and prediction. Proceedings of the 3rd International Symposium, Institution of Mining and Metallurgy."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1680\/geot.1993.43.2.315","article-title":"Subsurface settlement profiles above tunnels in clay","volume":"43","author":"Mair","year":"1993","journal-title":"Geotechnique"},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Mair, R.J. (1996). General report on settlement effects of bored tunnels. International Conference of Geotechnical Aspects on Underground Construction in Soft Ground, CRC Press."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)0733-9410(1989)115:1(1)","article-title":"Building response to excavation-induced settlement","volume":"115","author":"Boscardin","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Geotech. Eng."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Timoshenko, S.P. (1957). Strength of Materials: Elementary Theory and Problems, D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1399","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)1090-0241(2005)131:11(1399)","article-title":"Estimating the effects of tunneling on existing pipelines","volume":"131","author":"Vorster","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1680\/geot.10.P.047","article-title":"Tunnels in sands: The effect of size, depth and volume loss on greenfield displacements","volume":"62","author":"Marshall","year":"2012","journal-title":"Geotechnique"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/10\/2\/287\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T14:54:55Z","timestamp":1760194495000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/10\/2\/287"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,2,13]]},"references-count":47,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,2]]}},"alternative-id":["rs10020287"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs10020287","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,2,13]]}}}