{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,8]],"date-time":"2026-05-08T22:12:47Z","timestamp":1778278367239,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":77,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,2,23]],"date-time":"2018-02-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1519344000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002341","name":"Academy of Finland","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["273806"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["273806"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002341","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002341","name":"Academy of Finland","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["272195"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["272195"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002341","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Forests are the most diverse terrestrial ecosystems and their biological diversity includes trees, but also other plants, animals, and micro-organisms. One-third of the forested land is in boreal zone; therefore, changes in biological diversity in boreal forests can shape biodiversity, even at global scale. Several forest attributes, including size variability, amount of dead wood, and tree species richness, can be applied in assessing biodiversity of a forest ecosystem. Remote sensing offers complimentary tool for traditional field measurements in mapping and monitoring forest biodiversity. Recent development of small unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) enable the detailed characterization of forest ecosystems through providing data with high spatial but also temporal resolution at reasonable costs. The objective here is to deepen the knowledge about assessment of plot-level biodiversity indicators in boreal forests with hyperspectral imagery and photogrammetric point clouds from a UAV. We applied individual tree crown approach (ITC) and semi-individual tree crown approach (semi-ITC) in estimating plot-level biodiversity indicators. Structural metrics from the photogrammetric point clouds were used together with either spectral features or vegetation indices derived from hyperspectral imagery. Biodiversity indicators like the amount of dead wood and species richness were mainly underestimated with UAV-based hyperspectral imagery and photogrammetric point clouds. Indicators of structural variability (i.e., standard deviation in diameter-at-breast height and tree height) were the most accurately estimated biodiversity indicators with relative RMSE between 24.4% and 29.3% with semi-ITC. The largest relative errors occurred for predicting deciduous trees (especially aspen and alder), partly due to their small amount within the study area. Thus, especially the structural diversity was reliably predicted by integrating the three-dimensional and spectral datasets of UAV-based point clouds and hyperspectral imaging, and can therefore be further utilized in ecological studies, such as biodiversity monitoring.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10020338","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,2,23]],"date-time":"2018-02-23T12:41:40Z","timestamp":1519389700000},"page":"338","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":75,"title":["Assessing Biodiversity in Boreal Forests with UAV-Based Photogrammetric Point Clouds and Hyperspectral Imaging"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2730-8892","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ninni","family":"Saarinen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Forest Sciences, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 27, 00014 Helsinki, Finland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6552-9122","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mikko","family":"Vastaranta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Forest Sciences, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 27, 00014 Helsinki, Finland"},{"name":"School of Forest Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box-111, 80101 Joensuu, Finland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5823-8180","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Roope","family":"N\u00e4si","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Remote Sensing and Photogrammetry, Finnish Geospatial Research Institute, National Land Survey, Geodeetinrinne 2, 02431 Masala, Finland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Tomi","family":"Rosnell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Remote Sensing and Photogrammetry, Finnish Geospatial Research Institute, National Land Survey, Geodeetinrinne 2, 02431 Masala, Finland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Teemu","family":"Hakala","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Remote Sensing and Photogrammetry, Finnish Geospatial Research Institute, National Land Survey, Geodeetinrinne 2, 02431 Masala, Finland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7236-2145","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eija","family":"Honkavaara","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Remote Sensing and Photogrammetry, Finnish Geospatial Research Institute, National Land Survey, Geodeetinrinne 2, 02431 Masala, Finland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6942-1896","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michael","family":"Wulder","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Canadian Forest Service (Pacific Forestry Centre), Natural Resources Canada, 506 West Burnside Road, Victoria, BC V8Z 1M5, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ville","family":"Luoma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Forest Sciences, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 27, 00014 Helsinki, Finland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0483-1103","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antonio","family":"Tommaselli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Cartography, S\u00e3o Paulo State University, Roberto Simonsen 305, 19060-900 Presidente Prudente, Brazil"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0516-0567","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nilton","family":"Imai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Cartography, S\u00e3o Paulo State University, Roberto Simonsen 305, 19060-900 Presidente Prudente, Brazil"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3313-6783","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eduardo","family":"Ribeiro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Catarinense Federal Institute, Rodovia Duque de Caxias, km 6, s\/n, 89240-000 S\u00e3o Francisco do Sul, Brazil"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Raul","family":"Guimar\u00e3es","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Cartography, S\u00e3o Paulo State University, Roberto Simonsen 305, 19060-900 Presidente Prudente, Brazil"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Markus","family":"Holopainen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Forest Sciences, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 27, 00014 Helsinki, Finland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Juha","family":"Hyypp\u00e4","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Remote Sensing and Photogrammetry, Finnish Geospatial Research Institute, National Land Survey, Geodeetinrinne 2, 02431 Masala, Finland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,2,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1038\/35012228","article-title":"Global patterns in biodiversity","volume":"405","author":"Gaston","year":"2000","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Huston, M.A. (1994). Biological Diversity: The Coexistence of Species, Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rosenzweig, M.L. (1995). Species Diversity in Space and Time, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511623387"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.5558\/tfc73229-2","article-title":"Biodiversity and its relationship to ecosystem health and integrity","volume":"73","author":"Kimmins","year":"1997","journal-title":"For. Chron."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"374","DOI":"10.1007\/s10021-009-9229-5","article-title":"Globio3: A framework to investigate options for reducing global terrestrial biodiversity loss","volume":"12","author":"Alkemade","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ecosystems"},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"MacDicken, K., Jonsson, \u00d6., Pi\u00f1a, L., Maulo, S., Contessa, V., Adikari, Y., Garzuglia, M., Lindquist, E., Reams, G., and D\u2019Annunzio, R. (2016). Global Forest Resources Assessment 2015: How Are the World\u2019s Forests Changing?, United Nations."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1770","DOI":"10.1126\/science.287.5459.1770","article-title":"Global biodiversity scenarios for the year 2100","volume":"287","author":"Sala","year":"2000","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"891","DOI":"10.1641\/0006-3568(2002)052[0891:THFATL]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"The human footprint and the last of the wild","volume":"52","author":"Sanderson","year":"2002","journal-title":"BioScience"},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Sarukhan, J., Whyte, A.E., Hassan, R.E., Scholes, R.E., Ash, N.E., Carpenter, S.T.E., Pingali, P.L.E., Bennett, E.M.E., Zurek, M.B.E., and Chopra, K.E. (2005). Millenium Ecosystem Assessment: Ecosystems and Human Well-Being, Island Press."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Burton, P.J., Messier, C., Smith, D.W., and Adamowicz, W.L. (2003). The current state of boreal forestry and the drive for change. Towards Sustainable Management of Boreal Forests, NRC Research Press."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.14214\/sf.552","article-title":"Natural variability of forests as a reference for restoring and managing biological diversity in boreal Fennoscandia","volume":"36","author":"Kuuluvainen","year":"2002","journal-title":"Silva Fenn."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"16","article-title":"Boreal forests","volume":"46","author":"Esseen","year":"1997","journal-title":"Ecol. Bull."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.1006\/lich.1996.0043","article-title":"Epiphyte flora and diversity on basal trunks of six old-growth forest tree species in southern and middle boreal Finland","volume":"28","author":"Kuusinen","year":"1996","journal-title":"Lichenologist"},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"245","article-title":"Epiphytic lichen flora and diversity on Populus tremula in old-growth and managed forests of southern and middle boreal Finland","volume":"31","author":"Kuusinen","year":"1994","journal-title":"Ann. Bot. Fenn."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"11","article-title":"Forest management, coarse woody debris and saproxylic organisms: Fennoscandian boreal forests as an example","volume":"49","author":"Siitonen","year":"2001","journal-title":"Ecol. Bull."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1017","DOI":"10.2307\/1940352","article-title":"Avian community organization and habitat structure","volume":"55","author":"Willson","year":"1974","journal-title":"Ecology"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-1127(98)00400-9","article-title":"Stand structure as the basis of diversity index","volume":"115","author":"Laiho","year":"1999","journal-title":"For. Ecol. Manag."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1105","DOI":"10.1139\/x01-033","article-title":"Introduction and evaluation of possible indices of stand structural diversity","volume":"31","author":"Staudhammer","year":"2001","journal-title":"Can. J. For. Res."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/S0304-3800(97)00182-8","article-title":"Estimation of a spatial tree-influence model using iterative optimization","volume":"106","author":"Kuuluvainen","year":"1998","journal-title":"Ecol. Model."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1177\/0309133307079054","article-title":"Development of a large area biodiversity monitoring system driven by remote sensing","volume":"31","author":"Duro","year":"2007","journal-title":"Prog. Phys. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"853","DOI":"10.1139\/X06-241","article-title":"Complementary use of voting methods and interactive utility analysis in participatory strategic forest planning: Experiences gained from western Finland","volume":"37","author":"Hiltunen","year":"2007","journal-title":"Can. J. For. Res."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2377","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160117096","article-title":"Using remote sensing to assess biodiversity","volume":"22","author":"Nagendra","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maltamo, M., N\u00e6sset, E., and Vauhkonen, J. (2014). Assessing biodiversity by airborne laser scanning. Forestry Applications of Airborne Laser Scanning, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-017-8663-8"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"306","DOI":"10.1016\/S0169-5347(03)00070-3","article-title":"Remote sensing for biodiversity science and conservation","volume":"18","author":"Turner","year":"2003","journal-title":"Trends Ecol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nevalainen, O., Honkavaara, E., Tuominen, S., Viljanen, N., Hakala, T., Yu, X., Hyypp\u00e4, J., Saari, H., P\u00f6l\u00f6nen, I., and Imai, N.N. (2017). Individual tree detection and classification with UAV-based photogrammetric point clouds and hyperspectral imaging. Remote Sens., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9030185"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5037","DOI":"10.3390\/s8085037","article-title":"Detection of aspens using high resolution aerial laser scanning data and digital aerial images","volume":"8","author":"Maltamo","year":"2008","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13863","DOI":"10.3390\/rs71013863","article-title":"Investigating bi-temporal hyperspectral LiDAR measurements from declined trees\u2014Experiences from laboratory test","volume":"7","author":"Junttila","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2665","DOI":"10.3390\/rs2122665","article-title":"Classification of defoliated trees using tree-level airborne laser scanning data combined with aerial images","volume":"2","author":"Kantola","year":"2010","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2064","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2007.08.023","article-title":"The use of airborne lidar to assess avian species diversity, density, and occurrence in a pine\/aspen forest","volume":"112","author":"Clawges","year":"2008","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"851","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2435.2002.00697.x","article-title":"Quantifying woodland structure and habitat quality for birds using airborne laser scanning","volume":"16","author":"Hinsley","year":"2002","journal-title":"Funct. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1069","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2009.12.017","article-title":"Characterizing forest ecological structure using pulse types and heights of airborne laser scanning","volume":"114","author":"Miura","year":"2010","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1403","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2010.01.023","article-title":"Discrimination of vegetation strata in a multi-layered mediterranean forest ecosystem using height and intensity information derived from airborne laser scanning","volume":"114","author":"Morsdorf","year":"2010","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foreco.2008.08.016","article-title":"Identification of boreal forest stands with high herbaceous plant diversity using airborne laser scanning","volume":"257","author":"Vehmas","year":"2009","journal-title":"For. Ecol. Manag."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3288","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foreco.2008.02.017","article-title":"Airborne laser scanning-based prediction of coarse woody debris volumes in a conservation area","volume":"255","author":"Pesonen","year":"2008","journal-title":"For. Ecol. Manag."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"825","DOI":"10.1007\/s13595-011-0079-x","article-title":"Using airborne laser scanning data for detecting canopy gaps and their understory type in mature boreal forest","volume":"68","author":"Vehmas","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ann. For. Sci."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"350","DOI":"10.1093\/forestry\/cpw011","article-title":"Unsupervised classification of airborne laser scanning data to locate potential wildlife habitats for forest management planning","volume":"89","author":"Vauhkonen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Forestry"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.5558\/tfc2017-012","article-title":"Unmanned aerial systems for precision forest inventory purposes: A review and case study","volume":"93","author":"Goodbody","year":"2017","journal-title":"For. Chron."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.81.4.281","article-title":"Overview and current status of remote sensing applications based on unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs)","volume":"81","author":"Pajares","year":"2015","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2427","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2016.1252477","article-title":"Forestry applications of UAVs in europe: A review","volume":"38","author":"Torresan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"042029","DOI":"10.1088\/1755-1315\/44\/4\/042029","article-title":"Using Hyperspectral Frame Images from Unmanned Airborne Vehicle for Detailed Measurement of Boreal Forest 3d Structure","volume":"44","author":"Tommaselli","year":"2016","journal-title":"IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9632","DOI":"10.3390\/rs70809632","article-title":"Inventory of small forest areas using an unmanned aerial system","volume":"7","author":"Puliti","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Inoue, T., Nagai, S., Yamashita, S., Fadaei, H., Ishii, R., Okabe, K., Taki, H., Honda, Y., Kajiwara, K., and Suzuki, R. (2014). Unmanned aerial survey of fallen trees in a deciduous broadleaved forest in eastern japan. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0109881"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6988","DOI":"10.3390\/rs6086988","article-title":"Using unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) to quantify spatial gap patterns in forests","volume":"6","author":"Getzin","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wallace, L., Lucieer, A., Malenovsk\u00fd, Z., Turner, D., and Vop\u011bnka, P. (2016). Assessment of forest structure using two UAV techniques: A comparison of airborne laser scanning and structure from motion (SfM) point clouds. Forests, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/f7030062"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biocon.2015.03.031","article-title":"Using lightweight unmanned aerial vehicles to monitor tropical forest recovery","volume":"186","author":"Zahawi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biol. Conserv."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15467","DOI":"10.3390\/rs71115467","article-title":"Using UAV-based photogrammetry and hyperspectral imaging for mapping bark beetle damage at tree-level","volume":"7","author":"Honkavaara","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/0034-4257(95)00224-3","article-title":"Estimation of tree heights and stand volume using an airborne lidar system","volume":"56","author":"Nilsson","year":"1996","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biocon.2016.03.027","article-title":"Seeing the forest from drones: Testing the potential of lightweight drones as a tool for long-term forest monitoring","volume":"198","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biol. Conserv."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2041-210X.2011.00158.x","article-title":"Assessing biodiversity in forests using very high-resolution images and unmanned aerial vehicles","volume":"3","author":"Getzin","year":"2012","journal-title":"Methods Ecol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1890\/120150","article-title":"Lightweight unmanned aerial vehicles will revolutionize spatial ecology","volume":"11","author":"Anderson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Front. Ecol. Environ."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2013.04.005","article-title":"High spatial resolution three-dimensional mapping of vegetation spectral dynamics using computer vision","volume":"136","author":"Dandois","year":"2013","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Laasasenaho, J. (1982). Taper Curve and Volume Functions for Pine, Spruce and Birch, Mets\u00e4ntutkimuslaitos."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"605","DOI":"10.14214\/sf.236","article-title":"Biomass equations for birch in Finland","volume":"42","author":"Repola","year":"2008","journal-title":"Silva Fenn."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"625","DOI":"10.14214\/sf.184","article-title":"Biomass equations for scots pine and norway spruce in Finland","volume":"43","author":"Repola","year":"2009","journal-title":"Silva Fenn."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5006","DOI":"10.3390\/rs5105006","article-title":"Processing and assessment of spectrometric, stereoscopic imagery collected using a lightweight UAV spectral camera for precision agriculture","volume":"5","author":"Honkavaara","year":"2013","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1007\/s11263-006-8671-5","article-title":"Multi-view stereo reconstruction and scene flow estimation with a global image-based matching score","volume":"72","author":"Pons","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Comput. Vis."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2653","DOI":"10.1080\/014311699211994","article-title":"The use of the empirical line method to calibrate remotely sensed data to reflectance","volume":"20","author":"Smith","year":"1999","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Miyoshi, G.T., Imai, N.N., Tommaselli, A.M.G., Honkavaara, E., N\u00e4si, R., and Moriya, \u00c9.A.S. (2018). Radiometric block adjustment of hyperspectral image blocks in the brazilian environment. Int. J. Remote Sens.","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2018.1425570"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2007.02.029","article-title":"Single tree detection in very high resolution remote sensing data","volume":"110","author":"Hirschmugl","year":"2007","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1080\/01431168308948546","article-title":"The red edge of plant leaf reflectance","volume":"4","author":"Horler","year":"1983","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1010933404324","article-title":"Random forests","volume":"45","author":"Breiman","year":"2001","journal-title":"Mach. Learn."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2016.01.011","article-title":"Random forest in remote sensing: A review of applications and future directions","volume":"114","author":"Belgiu","year":"2016","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"911","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2009.12.004","article-title":"Prediction of species specific forest inventory attributes using a nonparametric semi-individual tree crown approach based on fused airborne laser scanning and multispectral data","volume":"114","author":"Breidenbach","year":"2010","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ufug.2018.01.010","article-title":"Remote sensing of bark beetle damage in urban forests at individual tree level using a novel hyperspectral camera from UAV and aircraft","volume":"30","author":"Honkavaara","year":"2018","journal-title":"Urban For. Urban Green."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eja.2014.01.004","article-title":"Tree height quantification using very high resolution imagery acquired from an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) and automatic 3D photo-reconstruction methods","volume":"55","author":"Angileri","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur. J. Agron."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"382","DOI":"10.5589\/m13-046","article-title":"Airborne laser scanning and digital stereo imagery measures of forest structure: Comparative results and implications to forest mapping and inventory update","volume":"39","author":"Vastaranta","year":"2013","journal-title":"Can. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"518","DOI":"10.3390\/f4030518","article-title":"The utility of image-based point clouds for forest inventory: A comparison with airborne laser scanning","volume":"4","author":"White","year":"2013","journal-title":"Forests"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13895","DOI":"10.3390\/rs71013895","article-title":"Optimal altitude, overlap, and weather conditions for computer vision UAV estimates of forest structure","volume":"7","author":"Dandois","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7721","DOI":"10.14214\/sf.7721","article-title":"Hyperspectral UAV -imagery and photogrammetric canopy height model in estimating forest stand variables","volume":"51","author":"Tuominen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Silva Fenn."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foreco.2012.12.044","article-title":"Modelling tree size diversity from airborne laser scanning using canopy height models with image texture measures","volume":"295","author":"Ozdemir","year":"2013","journal-title":"For. Ecol. Manag."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"805","DOI":"10.1007\/s11676-016-0353-8","article-title":"Comparison of satellite images with different spatial resolutions to estimate stand structural diversity in urban forests","volume":"28","author":"Ozkan","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. For. Res."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4059","DOI":"10.3390\/f6114059","article-title":"Forest parameter prediction using an image-based point cloud: A comparison of semi-ITC with ABA","volume":"6","author":"Rahlf","year":"2015","journal-title":"Forests"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.14214\/sf.156","article-title":"Tree species classification using airborne lidar\u2013effects of stand and tree parameters, downsizing of training set, intensity normalization, and sensor type","volume":"44","author":"Korpela","year":"2010","journal-title":"Silva Fenn."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5385","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2016.2606320","article-title":"Identification of successional stages and cover changes of tropical forest based on digital surface model analysis","volume":"9","author":"Berveglieri","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1007\/s13595-014-0389-x","article-title":"Assessing forest inventory information obtained from different inventory approaches and remote sensing data sources","volume":"72","author":"Bergseng","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ann. For. Sci."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"677","DOI":"10.1080\/02827581.2013.793386","article-title":"Characterizing forest species composition using multiple remote sensing data sources and inventory approaches","volume":"28","author":"Dalponte","year":"2013","journal-title":"Scand. J. For. Res."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"835","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ufug.2015.08.005","article-title":"Monitoring downed coarse woody debris through appearance of canopy gaps in urban boreal forests with bitemporal ALS data","volume":"14","author":"Kankare","year":"2015","journal-title":"Urban For. Urban Green."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/10\/2\/338\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T14:56:01Z","timestamp":1760194561000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/10\/2\/338"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,2,23]]},"references-count":77,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,2]]}},"alternative-id":["rs10020338"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs10020338","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,2,23]]}}}