{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T03:59:13Z","timestamp":1760241553884,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,5,8]],"date-time":"2018-05-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1525737600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["Grant 41375028","Grant 41475021"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Grant 41375028","Grant 41475021"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu, China","award":["Grant BK20151446"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Grant BK20151446"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The propagation of Global Positioning System (GPS) signals at low-elevation angles is significantly affected by a surface duct. In this paper, we present an improved algorithm known as NSSAGA, in which simulated annealing (SA) is combined with the non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm II (NSGA-II). Matched-field processing was used to remotely sense the refractivity structure by using the data of ground-based GPS phase delay and propagation loss from multiple antenna heights. The performance was checked by simulation data with and without noise. In comparison with NSGA-II, the new hybrid algorithm retrieved the refractivity structure more efficiently under various noise conditions. We then modified the objective function and found that matched-field processing is more effective than the conventional least-squares method for inferring the refractivity parameters. Comparing the inversion results and in situ sounding data suggests that the improved method presented herein can capture refractivity characteristics in realistic environments.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10050724","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,5,8]],"date-time":"2018-05-08T12:15:03Z","timestamp":1525781703000},"page":"724","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":16,"title":["Estimation of Surface Duct Using Ground-Based GPS Phase Delay and Propagation Loss"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2197-2170","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Qixiang","family":"Liao","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Meteorology and Oceanology, National University of Defense Technology, Nanjing 211101, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zheng","family":"Sheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Meteorology and Oceanology, National University of Defense Technology, Nanjing 211101, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Hanqing","family":"Shi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Meteorology and Oceanology, National University of Defense Technology, Nanjing 211101, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jie","family":"Xiang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Meteorology and Oceanology, National University of Defense Technology, Nanjing 211101, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Hong","family":"Yu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Meteorology and Oceanology, National University of Defense Technology, Nanjing 211101, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,5,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2010.2096456","article-title":"A Passive Technique to Monitor Evaporation Duct Height Using Coastal GNSS-R","volume":"8","author":"Wang","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. 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