{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,5]],"date-time":"2026-04-05T10:03:31Z","timestamp":1775383411135,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":136,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,5,21]],"date-time":"2018-05-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1526860800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000104","name":"National Aeronautics and Space Administration","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NNX16AQ62G"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NNX16AQ62G"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000104","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000104","name":"National Aeronautics and Space Administration","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NNX12AO96G"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NNX12AO96G"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000104","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000104","name":"National Aeronautics and Space Administration","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NNX17AL80G"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NNX17AL80G"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000104","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000104","name":"National Aeronautics and Space Administration","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NNX16AQ88G"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NNX16AQ88G"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000104","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100004420","name":"United Nations","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["United Nations Development Program\u2019s Imja Lake Lowering project"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["United Nations Development Program\u2019s Imja Lake Lowering project"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100004420","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Glacier recession driven by climate change produces glacial lakes, some of which are hazardous. Our study assesses the evolution of three of the most hazardous moraine-dammed proglacial lakes in the Nepal Himalaya\u2014Imja, Lower Barun, and Thulagi. Imja Lake (up to 150 m deep; 78.4 \u00d7 106 m3 volume; surveyed in October 2014) and Lower Barun Lake (205 m maximum observed depth; 112.3 \u00d7 106 m3 volume; surveyed in October 2015) are much deeper than previously measured, and their readily drainable volumes are slowly growing. Their surface areas have been increasing at an accelerating pace from a few small supraglacial lakes in the 1950s\/1960s to 1.33 km2 and 1.79 km2 in 2017, respectively. In contrast, the surface area (0.89 km2) and volume of Thulagi lake (76 m maximum observed depth; 36.1 \u00d7 106 m3; surveyed in October 2017) has remained almost stable for about two decades. Analyses of changes in the moraine dams of the three lakes using digital elevation models (DEMs) quantifies the degradation of the dams due to the melting of their ice cores and hence their natural lowering rates as well as the potential for glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs). We examined the likely future evolution of lake growth and hazard processes associated with lake instability, which suggests faster growth and increased hazard potential at Lower Barun lake.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10050798","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,5,22]],"date-time":"2018-05-22T04:34:03Z","timestamp":1526963643000},"page":"798","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":119,"title":["Evolution and Controls of Large Glacial Lakes in the Nepal Himalaya"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9527-954X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Umesh K.","family":"Haritashya","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geology, University of Dayton, Dayton, OH 45458, USA"}]},{"given":"Jeffrey S.","family":"Kargel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Planetary Science Institute, Tucson, AZ 85719, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6279-8420","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dan H.","family":"Shugar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Water, Sediment, Hazards, and Earth-Surface Dynamics (waterSHED) Laboratory, University of Washington Tacoma, Tacoma, WA 98402, USA"}]},{"given":"Gregory J.","family":"Leonard","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Planetary Sciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA"}]},{"given":"Katherine","family":"Strattman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geology, University of Dayton, Dayton, OH 45458, USA"}]},{"given":"C. Scott","family":"Watson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Hydrology and Atmospheric Sciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3840-3860","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David","family":"Shean","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA"}]},{"given":"Stephan","family":"Harrison","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geography, Exeter University, Exeter TR10 9FE, UK"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8267-5989","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kyle T.","family":"Mandli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Applied Physics and Applied Mathematics, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA"}]},{"given":"Dhananjay","family":"Regmi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Himalayan Research Centre, Kathmandu 44600, Nepal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,5,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1038\/nature23878","article-title":"Impact of a global temperature rise of 1.5 degrees celsius on asia\u2019s glaciers","volume":"549","author":"Kraaijenbrink","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1038\/ngeo2863","article-title":"Centennial glacier retreat as categorical evidence of regional climate change","volume":"10","author":"Roe","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"370","DOI":"10.1038\/ngeo2932","article-title":"River piracy and drainage basin reorganization led by climate-driven glacier retreat","volume":"10","author":"Shugar","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kargel, J.S., Leonard, G.J., Bishop, M.P., K\u00e4\u00e4b, A., and Raup, B.H. (2014). Global Land Ice Measurements from Space, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-79818-7"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ives, J.D., Shrestha, R.B., and Mool, P.K. (2010). Formation of Glacial Lakes in the Hindu Kush-Himalayas and Glof Risk Assessment, ICIMOD.","DOI":"10.53055\/ICIMOD.521"},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Parry, M.L., Canziani, O.F., Palutikof, J.P., van der Linden, P.J., and Hanson, C.E. Asia. Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change\u2019, Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schiermeier, Q. (2010). Glacier Estimate is on Thin Ice, Nature Publishing Group.","DOI":"10.1038\/463276a"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cogley, J.G. (2011). Himalayan glaciers in 2010 and 2035. Encyclopedia of Snow, Ice and Glaciers, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-90-481-2642-2_673"},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"138","article-title":"The emergence of the cryoscape: Contested narratives of himalayan glacier dynamics and climate change","volume":"2","author":"Baghel","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Clim. Chang. South Southeast Asia"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1382","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1183188","article-title":"Climate change will affect the asian water towers","volume":"328","author":"Immerzeel","year":"2010","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"310","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1215828","article-title":"The state and fate of himalayan glaciers","volume":"336","author":"Bolch","year":"2012","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bajracharya, S.R., Maharjan, S.B., Shrestha, F., Bajracharya, O.R., and Baidya, S. (2014). Glacier Status in Nepal and Decadal Change from 1980 to 2010 Based on Landsat Data, International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development.","DOI":"10.53055\/ICIMOD.591"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"668","DOI":"10.1038\/ngeo2999","article-title":"A spatially resolved estimate of high mountain asia glacier mass balances from 2000 to 2016","volume":"10","author":"Brun","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1017\/jog.2017.86","article-title":"Review of the status and mass changes of himalayan-karakoram glaciers","volume":"64","author":"Azam","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Glaciol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"468","DOI":"10.1038\/488468a","article-title":"Climate science: Himalayan glaciers in the balance","volume":"488","author":"Cogley","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14011","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1106242108","article-title":"Spatially heterogeneous wastage of himalayan glaciers","volume":"108","author":"Fujita","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14709","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1111663108","article-title":"Himalayan glaciers: The big picture is a montage","volume":"108","author":"Kargel","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1016\/j.quascirev.2013.07.028","article-title":"Proglacial lakes: Character, behaviour and geological importance","volume":"78","author":"Carrivick","year":"2013","journal-title":"Q. Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"044052","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/8\/4\/044052","article-title":"Changes of glacial lakes and implications in tian shan, central asia, based on remote sensing data from 1990 to 2010","volume":"8","author":"Wang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1002\/2015RG000494","article-title":"Where glaciers meet water: Subaqueous melt and its relevance to glaciers in various settings","volume":"54","author":"Truffer","year":"2016","journal-title":"Rev. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.3189\/2016AoG71A627","article-title":"Modelling glacier-bed overdeepenings and possible future lakes for the glaciers in the himalaya\u2014Karakoram region","volume":"57","author":"Linsbauer","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ann. Glaciol."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"460","article-title":"Climate change impacts on glacial lakes and glacierized basins in Nepal and implications for water resources","volume":"Volume 308","author":"Chalise","year":"2006","journal-title":"Climate Variability and Change. Hydrological Impacts"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1080\/00291950903368367","article-title":"Evaluating the growth characteristics of a glacial lake and its degree of danger of outburst flooding: Imja Glacier, Khumbu Himal, Nepal","volume":"63","author":"Watanabe","year":"2009","journal-title":"Norsk Geografisk Tidsskrift"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.3189\/172756410790595895","article-title":"Glaciers, glacial lakes and glacial lake outburst floods in the mount everest region, Nepal","volume":"50","author":"Bajracharya","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ann. Glaciol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.quaint.2007.09.012","article-title":"Recent expansions of glacial lakes in the bhutan himalayas","volume":"184","author":"Komori","year":"2008","journal-title":"Q. Int."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, and Mool, P. (2011). Glacial Lakes and Glacial Lake Outburst Floods in Nepal, International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"319","article-title":"Glacier lakes and outburst floods in the Nepal Himalaya","volume":"Volume 218","author":"Yamada","year":"1993","journal-title":"Snow and Glacier Hydrology"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1195","DOI":"10.5194\/tc-12-1195-2018","article-title":"Climate change and the global pattern of moraine-dammed glacial lake outburst floods","volume":"12","author":"Harrison","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cryosphere"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rounce, D.R., Watson, C.S., and McKinney, D.C. (2017). Identification of hazard and risk for glacial lakes in the Nepal Himalaya using satellite imagery from 2000\u20132015. Remote Sens., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9070654"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3455","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-20-3455-2016","article-title":"A new remote hazard and risk assessment framework for glacial lakes in the Nepal Himalaya","volume":"20","author":"Rounce","year":"2016","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Kargel, J.S., Haritashya, U.K., Leonard, G.J., Regmi, D., Chand, M., Joshi, S., and Mool, P. (2018, May 21). The Community Based Flood and Glacial Lake Outburst Risk Reduction Project (CFGORRP), Available online: http:\/\/cfgorrp.dhm.gov.np\/accomplishments\/undp-imja-final-report\/."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1016\/j.earscirev.2012.03.008","article-title":"Response of debris-covered glaciers in the mount everest region to recent warming, and implications for outburst flood hazards","volume":"114","author":"Benn","year":"2012","journal-title":"Earth-Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1054","DOI":"10.1130\/0016-7606(1988)100<1054:TFAFON>2.3.CO;2","article-title":"The formation and failure of natural dams","volume":"100","author":"Costa","year":"1988","journal-title":"Geol. Soc. Am. Bull."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1763","DOI":"10.1016\/S0277-3791(00)00090-1","article-title":"A review of catastrophic drainage of moraine-dammed lakes in british columbia","volume":"19","author":"Clague","year":"2000","journal-title":"Q. Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"563","article-title":"Hazard assessment of the tsho rolpa glacier lake and ongoing","volume":"22","author":"Rana","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Nepal Geol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S489","DOI":"10.1111\/jfr3.12241","article-title":"Hazard mitigation of glacial lake outburst floods in the cordillera blanca (Peru): The effectiveness of remedial works","volume":"11","author":"Emmer","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Flood Risk Manag."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cuellar, A.D., and McKinney, D.C. (2017). Decision-making methodology for risk management applied to Imja Lake in Nepal. Water, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/w9080591"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.2307\/3673897","article-title":"The 1994 Lugge Tsho glacial lake outburst flood, Bhutan Himalaya","volume":"16","author":"Watanbe","year":"1996","journal-title":"Mt. Res. Dev."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.3189\/172756501781832575","article-title":"Prevention of outburst floods from periglacial lakes at grubengletscher, valais, swiss alps","volume":"47","author":"Haeberli","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Glaciol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"316","DOI":"10.1139\/t01-099","article-title":"Remote sensing based assessment of hazards from glacier lake outbursts: A case study in the swiss alps","volume":"39","author":"Huggel","year":"2002","journal-title":"Can. Geotech. J."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.1122","article-title":"Geomorphic and sedimentological signature of a two-phase outburst flood from moraine-dammed Queen Bess Lake, British Columbia, Canada","volume":"30","author":"Kershaw","year":"2005","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.1191\/0959683606hl957rr","article-title":"A glacial lake outburst flood associated with recent mountain glacier retreat, patagonian andes","volume":"16","author":"Harrison","year":"2006","journal-title":"Holocene"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1659\/mrd.0976","article-title":"An integrated assessment of vulnerability to glacial hazards: A case study in the cordillera blanca, peru","volume":"28","author":"Hegglin","year":"2008","journal-title":"Mt. Res. Dev."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.1007\/s11069-009-9479-8","article-title":"Repeated glacial-lake outburst floods in Patagonia: An increasing hazard?","volume":"54","author":"Dussaillant","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1447","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-11-1447-2011","article-title":"Regional-scale analysis of lake outburst hazards in the southwestern Pamir, Tajikistan, based on remote sensing and GIS","volume":"11","author":"Mergili","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.5194\/adgeo-35-145-2014","article-title":"Mapping hazards from glacier lake outburst floods based on modelling of process cascades at lake 513, Carhuaz, Peru","volume":"35","author":"Schneider","year":"2014","journal-title":"Adv. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.3524","article-title":"Hazardous processes and events from glacier and permafrost areas: Lessons from the chilean and argentinean andes","volume":"40","author":"Mackintosh","year":"2015","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.3189\/2015JoG14J097","article-title":"Moraine-dammed lake distribution and outburst flood risk in the chinese himalaya","volume":"61","author":"Shijin","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Glaciol."},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"60","article-title":"Assessing glacial hazards for hydro development in the Himalayas, Hindu Kush and Karakoram","volume":"21","author":"Reynolds","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydropower Dams"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2016.06.028","article-title":"Reconstruction of glacial lake outburst floods in northern tien shan: Implications for hazard assessment","volume":"269","author":"Zaginaev","year":"2016","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gloplacha.2016.07.001","article-title":"A global assessment of the societal impacts of glacier outburst floods","volume":"144","author":"Carrivick","year":"2016","journal-title":"Glob. Planet. Chang."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/S1040-6182(99)00035-X","article-title":"An overview of glacial hazards in the himalayas","volume":"65","author":"Richardson","year":"2000","journal-title":"Q. Int."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"074005","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/11\/7\/074005","article-title":"Uncertainty in the himalayan energy\u2013water nexus: Estimating regional exposure to glacial lake outburst floods","volume":"11","author":"Schwanghart","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Konz, M., Braun, L., Grabs, W., Shrestha, A., and Uhlenbrook, S. (2006). Runoff from Nepalese Headwater Catchments: Measurements and Modelling, Unesco International Hydrological Programme."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2361","DOI":"10.1016\/j.quascirev.2008.08.010","article-title":"Sedimentological, geomorphological and dynamic context of debris-mantled glaciers, mount everest (Sagarmatha) region, Nepal","volume":"27","author":"Hambrey","year":"2008","journal-title":"Q. Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Krumwiede, B.S., Kamp, U., Leonard, G.J., Kargel, J.S., Dashtseren, A., and Walther, M. (2014). Recent glacier changes in the mongolian altai mountains: Case studies from munkh khairkhan and tavan bogd. Global Land Ice Measurements from Space, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-79818-7_22"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2016.03.012","article-title":"An automated, open-source pipeline for mass production of digital elevation models (DEMS) from very-high-resolution commercial stereo satellite imagery","volume":"116","author":"Shean","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Photogram. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"Shean, D.E. (2017). High Mountain Asia 8-Meter Dems Derived from Along-Track Optical Imagery."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"Shean, D.E. (2017). High Mountain Asia 8-Meter Dems Derived from Cross-Track Optical Imagery."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"850","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1244693","article-title":"High-resolution global maps of 21st-century forest cover change","volume":"342","author":"Hansen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"398","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2009.02.003","article-title":"Accuracy assessment of digital elevation models by means of robust statistical methods","volume":"64","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Photogram. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"398","DOI":"10.3390\/rs3020398","article-title":"Sky-view factor as a relief visualization technique","volume":"3","author":"Kokalj","year":"2011","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"Richter, R., and Schl\u00e4pfer, D. (2005). Atmospheric\/Topographic Correction for Satellite Imagery, DLR Report DLR-IB."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"867","DOI":"10.3189\/002214308787779861","article-title":"Characteristics and evolution of supraglacial ponds on debris-covered tasman glacier, new zealand","volume":"54","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Glaciol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chinn, T.J., Kargel, J.S., Leonard, G.J., Haritashya, U.K., and Pleasants, M. (2014). New Zealand\u2019s glaciers. Global Land Ice Measurements from Space, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-79818-7"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Leprince, S., Ayoub, F., Klinger, Y., and Avouac, J.-P. (2007, January 23\u201327). Co-registration of optically sensed images and correlation (COSI-Corr): An operational methodology for ground deformation measurements. Proceedings of the 2007 International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, Barcelona, Spain.","DOI":"10.1109\/IGARSS.2007.4423207"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3806","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2008.05.018","article-title":"Glacier-surface velocities in alpine terrain from optical satellite imagery\u2014Accuracy improvement and quality assessment","volume":"112","author":"Scherler","year":"2008","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1177\/0309133315593894","article-title":"Remote sensing flow velocity of debris-covered glaciers using landsat 8 data","volume":"40","author":"Sam","year":"2016","journal-title":"Prog. Phys. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"572","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2017.08.012","article-title":"Temporal variations in supraglacial debris distribution on baltoro glacier, karakoram between 2001 and 2012","volume":"295","author":"Gibson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2075","DOI":"10.5194\/tc-10-2075-2016","article-title":"Heterogeneous glacier thinning patterns over the last 40 years in langtang himal","volume":"10","author":"Ragettli","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cryosphere"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"737","DOI":"10.1111\/geoa.12112","article-title":"Assessment of the evolution in velocity of two debris-covered valley glaciers in Nepal and New Zealand","volume":"97","author":"Haritashya","year":"2015","journal-title":"Geogr. Ann. Ser. A Phys. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1017\/jog.2016.37","article-title":"Stagnation and mass loss on a himalayan debris-covered glacier: Processes, patterns and rates","volume":"62","author":"Thompson","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Glaciol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.4236","article-title":"Heterogeneous water storage and thermal regime of supraglacial ponds on debris-covered glaciers","volume":"43","author":"Watson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf."},{"key":"ref_74","unstructured":"International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) (2008). IHO Standards for Hydrographic Surveys, IHO."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"390","DOI":"10.1007\/s11629-011-2064-0","article-title":"Digital terrain modelling using corona and alos prism data to investigate the distal part of Imja Glacier, Khumbu Himal, Nepal","volume":"8","author":"Lamsal","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Mt. Sci."},{"key":"ref_76","unstructured":"Hanisch, J., Delisle, G., Pokhrel, A.P., Dixit, A.M., Reynolds, J.M., and Grabs, W.E. (1998, January 21\u201325). The Thulagi Glacier Lake, Manaslu Himal, Nepal-hazard assessment of a potential outburst. Proceedings of the 8th International Conference of the IAEG, Vancouver, BC, Canada."},{"key":"ref_77","unstructured":"Somos-Valenzuela, M., McKinney, D.C., Byers, A.C., Voss, K., Moss, J., and McKinney, J.C. (2012). Ground Penetrating Radar Survey for Risk Reduction at Imja Lake, Nepal, Center for Research in Water Resources, University of Texas at Austin."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2016.11.008","article-title":"A regional-scale assessment of himalayan glacial lake changes using satellite observations from 1990 to 2015","volume":"189","author":"Nie","year":"2017","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_79","unstructured":"WECS (1993). Preliminary Report on the First Field Investigation on the Lower Barun Glacier Lake, WECS."},{"key":"ref_80","first-page":"21","article-title":"An assessment of contemporary glacier fluctuations in Nepal\u2019s khumbu himal using repeat photography","volume":"4","author":"Byers","year":"2007","journal-title":"Himal. J. Sci."},{"key":"ref_81","unstructured":"Schneider, E. (1967). The map of the\u201d Khumbu Himal (Everest), Ergebnisse des Forshungsunternehmens Nepal Himalaya."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schneider, E. (1967). Begleitworte zur Karte Khumbu Himal i und zur namensgebung. Khumbu Himal, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-92945-8_4"},{"key":"ref_83","unstructured":"Yamada, T. (1992). Report for the First Research Expedition to Imja Glacier Lake, WECS. WECS Report No. 3\/4\/120892\/1\/1 Seq. No. 412; Snow and Glacier Hydrology."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1329","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-8-1329-2008","article-title":"Identification of glacier motion and potentially dangerous glacial lakes in the MT. Everest region\/Nepal using spaceborne imagery","volume":"8","author":"Bolch","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"045205","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/4\/4\/045205","article-title":"Recent changes in Imja Glacial Lake and its damming moraine in the Nepal Himalaya revealed by in situ surveys and multi-temporal aster imagery","volume":"4","author":"Fujita","year":"2009","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.3189\/2016AoG71A063","article-title":"Factors controlling the accelerated expansion of Imja Lake, mount everest region, Nepal","volume":"57","author":"Thakuri","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ann. Glaciol."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1661","DOI":"10.5194\/tc-8-1661-2014","article-title":"Changes in Imja Tsho in the mount everest region of Nepal","volume":"8","author":"McKinney","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cryosphere"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.2307\/3673729","article-title":"Rapid growth of a Glacial Lake in Khumbu Himal, Himalaya: Prospects for a catastrophic flood","volume":"14","author":"Watanabe","year":"1994","journal-title":"Mt. Res. Dev."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1401","DOI":"10.4319\/lo.2000.45.6.1401","article-title":"Expansion of a moraine-dammed Glacial Lake, Tsho Rolpa, in Rolwaling Himal, Nepal Himalaya","volume":"45","author":"Sakai","year":"2000","journal-title":"Limnol. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.3189\/S0022143000016178","article-title":"Characteristics of tide-water calving at glaciar san rafael, chile","volume":"41","author":"Warren","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Glaciol."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1144\/GSL.SP.2005.242.01.09","article-title":"Melt rates at calving termini: A study at glaciar le\u00f3n, chilean patagonia","volume":"242","author":"Haresign","year":"2005","journal-title":"Geol. Soc. Lond. Spec. Publ."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1016\/j.earscirev.2007.02.002","article-title":"Calving processes and the dynamics of calving glaciers","volume":"82","author":"Benn","year":"2007","journal-title":"Earth-Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3109","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-12-3109-2012","article-title":"An approach for estimating the breach probabilities of moraine-dammed lakes in the chinese himalayas using remote-sensing data","volume":"12","author":"Wang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3243","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-14-3243-2014","article-title":"Moraine-dammed lake failures in Patagonia and assessment of outburst susceptibility in the Baker Basin","volume":"14","author":"Anacona","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gloplacha.2018.01.004","article-title":"Glacial lakes of the central and patagonian andes","volume":"162","author":"Wilson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Glob. Planet. Chang."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.3389\/feart.2018.00012","article-title":"Spatial variability in patterns of glacier change across the manaslu range, central Himalaya","volume":"6","author":"Robson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bishop, M.P., Bush, A.B.G., Furfaro, R., Gillespie, A.R., Hall, D.K., Haritashya, U.K., and Shroder, J.F. (2014). Theoretical foundations of remote sensing for glacier assessment and mapping. Global Land Ice Measurements from Space, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-79818-7_2"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1016\/0034-4257(89)90044-8","article-title":"Evaluation of topographic effects in remotely sensed data","volume":"30","author":"Proy","year":"1989","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.3189\/2014JoG13J045","article-title":"Assessing ice-cliff backwasting and its contribution to total ablation of debris-covered Miage Glacier, Mont Blanc Massif, Italy","volume":"60","author":"Reid","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Glaciol."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2014.04.025","article-title":"High-resolution monitoring of Himalayan glacier dynamics using unmanned aerial vehicles","volume":"150","author":"Immerzeel","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"889","DOI":"10.3189\/2015JoG14J194","article-title":"Modelling ice-cliff backwasting on a debris-covered glacier in the Nepalese Himalaya","volume":"61","author":"Steiner","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Glaciol."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.3189\/2016AoG71A059","article-title":"A grid-based model of backwasting of supraglacial ice cliffs on debris-covered glaciers","volume":"57","author":"Buri","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ann. Glaciol."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1017\/jog.2016.120","article-title":"Spatial, seasonal and interannual variability of supraglacial ponds in the langtang valley of Nepal, 1999\u20132013","volume":"63","author":"Miles","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Glaciol."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"823","DOI":"10.1017\/jog.2017.47","article-title":"Quantifying ice cliff evolution with multi-temporal point clouds on the debris-covered Khumbu glacier, Nepal","volume":"63","author":"Watson","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Glaciol."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1007\/s00704-012-0687-x","article-title":"Enhanced temperature variability in high-altitude climate change","volume":"110","author":"Ohmura","year":"2012","journal-title":"Theor. Appl. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.1007\/s10584-012-0419-3","article-title":"Climate change in mountains: A review of elevation-dependent warming and its possible causes","volume":"114","author":"Rangwala","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1105","DOI":"10.5194\/tc-9-1105-2015","article-title":"Modelling glacier change in the everest region, Nepal Himalaya","volume":"9","author":"Shea","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cryosphere"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.1038\/nclimate2237","article-title":"Consistent increase in high asia\u2019s runoff due to increasing glacier melt and precipitation","volume":"4","author":"Lutz","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1038\/ngeo1068","article-title":"Spatially variable response of himalayan glaciers to climate change affected by debris cover","volume":"4","author":"Scherler","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Racoviteanu, A.E., Arnaud, Y., Baghuna, I.M., Bajracharya, S.R., Berthier, E., Bhambri, R., Bolch, T., Byrne, M., Chaujar, R.K., and Frauenfelder, R. (2014). Himalayan Glaciers (India, Bhutan, Nepal): Satellite observations of thinning and retreat. Global Land Ice Measurements from Space, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-79818-7_24"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.4236\/ijg.2015.64035","article-title":"Peculiar characteristics of fragmentation of glaciers: A case study of western Himalaya, India","volume":"6","author":"Brahmbhatt","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_112","unstructured":"Sakai, A., Fujita, K., and Yamada, T. (2003, January 7\u201310). Volume change of imja tsho in the Nepal Himalayas. Proceedings of the ISDB 2003, Niigata, Japan."},{"key":"ref_113","unstructured":"GDH (2013). G.L.O.F Risk Assessment on the Thulagi Lake, Nepal, GDH."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"596","DOI":"10.3189\/002214309789470987","article-title":"Quantification of everest region glacier velocities between 1992 and 2002, using satellite radar interferometry and feature tracking","volume":"55","author":"Quincey","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Glaciol."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gloplacha.2006.07.013","article-title":"Early recognition of glacial lake hazards in the Himalaya using remote sensing datasets","volume":"56","author":"Quincey","year":"2007","journal-title":"Glob. Planet. Chang."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"561","DOI":"10.1130\/0091-7613(2003)031<0561:BDOMEM>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Beryllium-10 dating of mount everest moraines indicates a strong monsoon influence and glacial synchroneity throughout the Himalaya","volume":"31","author":"Finkel","year":"2003","journal-title":"Geology"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1412","DOI":"10.1016\/j.quascirev.2009.02.010","article-title":"Quaternary glaciation of mount everest","volume":"28","author":"Owen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Q. Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_118","unstructured":"Kulkarni, A.V., Rathore, B.P., Mahajan, S., and Mathur, P. (2005). Alarming retreat of Parbati Glacier, Beas Basin, Himachal Pradesh. Curr. Sci., 1844\u20131850."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.3189\/172756410790595796","article-title":"Changes in clemenceau icefield and chaba group Glaciers, Canada, related to hypsometry, tributary detachment, length\u2013slope and area\u2013aspect relations","volume":"50","author":"Jiskoot","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ann. Glaciol."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1007\/s10584-009-9555-9","article-title":"Space-based assessment of glacier fluctuations in the wakhan pamir, afghanistan","volume":"94","author":"Haritashya","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.5194\/tc-5-349-2011","article-title":"Multi-decadal mass loss of glaciers in the everest area (Nepal Himalaya) derived from stereo imagery","volume":"5","author":"Bolch","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cryosphere"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gloplacha.2017.11.005","article-title":"The distribution and hydrological significance of rock glaciers in the Nepalese Himalaya","volume":"160","author":"Jones","year":"2018","journal-title":"Glob. Planet. Chang."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.3189\/172756506781828584","article-title":"Calculating ice melt beneath a debris layer using meteorological data","volume":"52","author":"Nicholson","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Glaciol."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"903","DOI":"10.3189\/002214310794457218","article-title":"An energy-balance model for debris-covered glaciers including heat conduction through the debris layer","volume":"56","author":"Reid","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Glaciol."},{"key":"ref_125","unstructured":"Sakai, A., Takeuchi, N., Fujita, K., and Nakawo, M. (2000). Role of supraglacial ponds in the ablation process of a debris-covered glacier in the Nepal Himalayas. Debris-Covered Glaciers, International Association of Hydrological Sciences."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"903","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.4068","article-title":"A conceptual model of supra-glacial lake formation on debris-covered glaciers based on GPR facies analysis","volume":"42","author":"Mertes","year":"2017","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1016\/j.earscirev.2014.03.009","article-title":"Modelling outburst floods from moraine-dammed glacial lakes","volume":"134","author":"Westoby","year":"2014","journal-title":"Earth-Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1016\/j.quascirev.2017.10.028","article-title":"Geomorphologically effective floods from moraine-dammed lakes in the cordillera Blanca, Peru","volume":"177","author":"Emmer","year":"2017","journal-title":"Q. Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.5194\/tc-11-443-2017","article-title":"Brief communication: Observations of a glacier outburst flood from Lhotse Glacier, Everest area, Nepal","volume":"11","author":"Rounce","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cryosphere"},{"key":"ref_130","unstructured":"GlacierHub (2018, April 05). A Visit to the Source of a Recent Glacier Flood in Nepal. Available online: http:\/\/glacierhub.org\/2017\/05\/17\/a-visit-to-the-source-of-a-recent-glacier-flood-in-nepal\/."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9786","DOI":"10.1002\/2017GL074443","article-title":"Quick release of internal water storage in a glacier leads to underestimation of the hazard potential of glacial lake outburst floods from lake merzbacher in central tian shan mountains","volume":"44","author":"Shangguan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_132","first-page":"7","article-title":"A field-based study of impacts of the 2015 earthquake on potentially dangerous Glacial Lakes in Nepal","volume":"37","author":"Byers","year":"2017","journal-title":"HIMALAYA J. Assoc. Nepal Himal. Stud."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"aac8353","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aac8353","article-title":"Geomorphic and geologic controls of geohazards induced by Nepal\u2019s 2015 Gorkha earthquake","volume":"351","author":"Kargel","year":"2016","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"520","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1523-1739.2009.01237.x","article-title":"The melting himalayas: Cascading effects of climate change on water, biodiversity, and livelihoods","volume":"23","author":"Xu","year":"2009","journal-title":"Conserv. Biol."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1016\/j.catena.2011.05.006","article-title":"Effects of vegetation type on soil resistance to erosion: Relationship between aggregate stability and shear strength","volume":"87","author":"Fattet","year":"2011","journal-title":"CATENA"},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"733","DOI":"10.1007\/s10584-011-0249-8","article-title":"An integrated socio-environmental framework for glacier hazard management and climate change adaptation: Lessons from lake 513, cordillera blanca, Peru","volume":"112","author":"Carey","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clim. Chang."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/10\/5\/798\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T15:05:13Z","timestamp":1760195113000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/10\/5\/798"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,5,21]]},"references-count":136,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,5]]}},"alternative-id":["rs10050798"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs10050798","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,5,21]]}}}