{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,4]],"date-time":"2026-03-04T07:36:23Z","timestamp":1772609783198,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":82,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,6,8]],"date-time":"2018-06-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1528416000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Increased groundwater abstraction is important to the economic development of Africa and to achieving many of the Sustainable Development Goals. However, there is little information on long-term or seasonal groundwater trends due to a lack of in situ monitoring. Here, we used GRACE data from three products (the Centre for Space Research land solution (CSR), the Jet Propulsion Laboratory\u2019s Global Mascon solution (JPL-MSCN), and the Centre National D\u2019etudes Spatiales \/ Groupe de Recherches de G\u00e9od\u00e9sie Spatiale solution (GRGS)), to examine terrestrial water storage (TWS) changes in 12 African sedimentary aquifers, to examine relationships between TWS and rainfall , and estimate groundwater storage (GWS) changes using four Land Surface Models (LSMs) (Community Land Model (CLM2.0), the Variable Infiltration Capacity model (VIC), the Mosaic model (MOSAIC) and the Noah model (NOAH)). We find that there are no substantial continuous long-term decreasing trends in groundwater storage from 2002 to 2016 in any of the African basins, however, consistent rising groundwater trends amounting to ~1 km3\/year and 1.5 km3\/year are identified in the Iullemmeden and Senegal basins, respectively, and longer term variations in \u0394TWS in several basins associated with rainfall patterns. Discrete seasonal \u0394TWS responses of \u00b11\u20135 cm\/year are indicated by GRACE for each of the basins, with the exception of the Congo, North Kalahari, and Senegal basins, which display larger seasonal \u0394TWS equivalent to approx. \u00b111\u201320 cm\/year. The different seasonal responses in \u0394TWS provide useful information about groundwater, including the identification of 5 to 9 month accumulation periods of rainfall in many semi-arid and arid basins as well as differences in \u0394TWS responses between Sahelian and southern African aquifers to similar rainfall, likely reflecting differences in landcover. Seasonal \u0394GWS estimated by combining GRACE \u0394TWS with LSM outputs compare inconsistently to available in situ measurements of groundwater recharge from different basins, highlighting the need to further develop the representation of the recharge process in LSMs and the need for more in situ observations from piezometry.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10060904","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,6,8]],"date-time":"2018-06-08T11:19:31Z","timestamp":1528456771000},"page":"904","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":67,"title":["Seasonal and Decadal Groundwater Changes in African Sedimentary Aquifers Estimated Using GRACE Products and LSMs"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"H.","family":"Bonsor","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"British Geological Survey, the Lyell Centre, Research Avenue South, Edinburgh EH14 4AP, UK"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9708-7223","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"M.","family":"Shamsudduha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Risk and Disaster Reduction, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK"},{"name":"Department of Geography, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK"}]},{"given":"B.","family":"Marchant","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"British Geological Survey, Environmental Science Centre, Keyworth NG12 5GG, UK"}]},{"given":"A.","family":"MacDonald","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"British Geological Survey, the Lyell Centre, Research Avenue South, Edinburgh EH14 4AP, UK"}]},{"given":"R.","family":"Taylor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geography, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,6,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"143","article-title":"Impact of water withdrawals from groundwater and surface water on continental water storage variations","volume":"59\u201360","author":"Portmann","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Geodyn."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1579\/0044-7447-34.3.230","article-title":"Geospatial indicators of emerging water stress: An application to Africa","volume":"34","author":"Douglas","year":"2005","journal-title":"Ambio"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1038\/nclimate1744","article-title":"Ground water and climate change","volume":"3","author":"Taylor","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"546","DOI":"10.1016\/j.desal.2008.05.100","article-title":"Developing groundwater for secure rural water supplies in Africa","volume":"248","author":"MacDonald","year":"2009","journal-title":"Desalination"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hunter, P.R., MacDonald, A.M., and Carter, R.C. (2010). Water Supply and Health. PLoS Med., 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1000361"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L17401","DOI":"10.1029\/2011GL048604","article-title":"Contribution of global groundwater depletion since 1900 to sea-level rise","volume":"38","author":"Konikow","year":"2011","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"777","DOI":"10.1038\/nclimate3001","article-title":"Fate of water pumped from underground and contributions to sea-level rise","volume":"6","author":"Wada","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Shiklomanov, I., and Rodda, J. (2003). World Water Resources at the Beginning of the Twenty-First Century [International Hydrology Series, UNESCO], Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"W11517","DOI":"10.1029\/2009WR008564","article-title":"GRACE hydrological estimates for small basins: Evaluating approaches on the High Plains Aquifer, USA","volume":"46","author":"Longuevergne","year":"2010","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"762","DOI":"10.1038\/ngeo2791","article-title":"Groundwater quality and depletion in the Indo-Gangetic Basin mapped from in situ observations","volume":"9","author":"MacDonald","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-6584.2009.00558.x","article-title":"Ground Water Security and Drought in Africa: Linking availability, access and demand","volume":"48","author":"Calow","year":"2010","journal-title":"Ground Water"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Lawrence, A.R., MacDonald, D.M., Howard, A.G., Barret, M.H., Pedley, S., Ahmed, K.M., and Nalubega, M. (2004). Guidelines for Assessing the Risk to Groundwater from On-Site Sanitation, British Geological Survey. British Geological Survey Commissioned Report, CR\/01\/142."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pritchard, M., Mkandawire, T., and O\u2019Neill, J.G. (2008). Assessment of groundwater quality in shallow wells within the southern districts of Malawi. Phys. Chem. Earth.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pce.2008.06.036"},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Morris, B.L., Lawrence, A.R., Chilton, P.J., Adams, B., Caylow, R.C., and Klinck, B.A. (2003). Groundwater and its Susceptibility to Degradation: A Global Assessment of the Problems and Options for Management, UNEP."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1957","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2003.1380","article-title":"Groundwater: The processes and global significance of aquifer degradation","volume":"358","author":"Foster","year":"2003","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"024009","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/7\/2\/024009","article-title":"Quantitative maps of groundwater resources in Africa","volume":"7","author":"MacDonald","year":"2012","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"UNEP (2010). Africa Water Atlas, Division of Early Warning and Assessment [DEWA], United Nations Environment Programme."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4206","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2011.07.019","article-title":"Projected water consumption in future global agriculture: Scenarios and related impacts","volume":"409","author":"Pfister","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"035009","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/4\/3\/035009","article-title":"Rainfall intensity and groundwater recharge: Empirical evidence from the Upper Nile Basin","volume":"4","author":"Owor","year":"2009","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"905","DOI":"10.1007\/s10040-013-0956-5","article-title":"Groundwater supply and demand from southern Africa\u2019s crystalline basement aquifer: Evidence from Malawi","volume":"21","author":"Robins","year":"2013","journal-title":"Hydrogeol. J."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"374","DOI":"10.1038\/nclimate1731","article-title":"Evidence of the dependence of groundwater resources on extreme rainfall in East Africa","volume":"3","author":"Taylor","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kotchoni, V.D.O., Vouillamoz, J.M., Lawson, F.M.A., Adjomayi, P., Boukari, M., and Taylor, R.G. (2018). Relationships between rainfall and groundwater recharge in seasonally humid Benin: A comparative analysis of long-term hydrographs in sedimentary and crystalline aquifers. Hydrogeol. J., in press.","DOI":"10.1007\/s10040-018-1806-2"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9412","DOI":"10.1002\/2016WR019494","article-title":"Global evaluation of new GRACE mascon products for hydrologic applications","volume":"52","author":"Scanlon","year":"2016","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L09607","DOI":"10.1029\/2004GL019920","article-title":"The gravity recovery and climate experiment: Mission overview and early results","volume":"31","author":"Tapley","year":"2004","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1029\/2004GL019779","article-title":"Time-variable gravity from GRACE: First results","volume":"31","author":"Wahr","year":"2004","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7379","DOI":"10.3390\/rs6087379","article-title":"Application of the Regional Water Mass Variations from GRACE Satellite Gravimetry to Large-scale water management in Africa","volume":"6","author":"Ramillien","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"999","DOI":"10.1038\/nature08238","article-title":"Satellite-based estimates of groundwater depletion in India","volume":"460","author":"Rodell","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L03403","DOI":"10.1029\/2010GL046442","article-title":"Satellites measure recent rates of groundwater depletion in California\u2019s Central Valley","volume":"38","author":"Famiglietti","year":"2011","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"W04520","DOI":"10.1029\/2011WR011312","article-title":"Ground referencing GRACE satellite estimates of groundwater storage changes in the California Central Valley, USA","volume":"48","author":"Scanlon","year":"2012","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"768","DOI":"10.1111\/gwat.12453","article-title":"Assessing Groundwater Depletion and Dynamics Using GRACE and InSAR: Potential and Limitations","volume":"54","author":"Castellazzi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ground Water"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9542","DOI":"10.1002\/2016WR018846","article-title":"Monitoring groundwater storage changes in complex basement aquifers: An evaluation of the GRACE satellites over East Africa","volume":"52","author":"Nanteza","year":"2016","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4533","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-21-4533-2017","article-title":"Recent changes in terrestrial water storage in the Upper Nile Basin: An evaluation of commonly used gridded GRACE products","volume":"21","author":"Shamsudduha","year":"2017","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gloplacha.2006.06.003","article-title":"Inter-annual variations of the mass balance of the Antarctica and Greenland ice sheets from GRACE","volume":"53","author":"Ramilien","year":"2006","journal-title":"Glob. Planet. Chang."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L19503","DOI":"10.1029\/2009GL040222","article-title":"Increasing rates of ice mass loss from the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets revealed by GRACE","volume":"36","author":"Velicogna","year":"2009","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"913","DOI":"10.3189\/2013JoG12J197","article-title":"Analysis of a GRACE global mascon solution for Gulf of Alaska glaciers","volume":"59","author":"Arendt","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Glaciol."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"414","article-title":"GRACE and Groundwater Drought in the Murray-Darling Basin","volume":"Volume 27","author":"Treidel","year":"2011","journal-title":"Climate Change Effects on Groundwater Resources: A Global Synthesis of Findings and Recommendations"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kolusu, S.R., Shamsudduha, M., Todd, M.C., Taylor, R.G., Seddon, D., Kashaigili, J.J., Girma, E., Cuthbert, M., Sorensen, J.P.R., and Villholth, K. (2017). The El Ni\u00f1o event of 2015\u201316: Climate anomalies and their impact on groundwater resources in East and Southern Africa. Environ. Res. Lett., in review.","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-2018-516"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1007\/s10712-008-9038-y","article-title":"Improvement of Global Hydrological Models Using GRACE Data","volume":"29","year":"2008","journal-title":"Surv. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3083","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-16-3083-2012","article-title":"Calibration and evaluation of a semi-distributed watershed model of Sub-Saharan Africa using GRACE data","volume":"16","author":"Xie","year":"2012","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1305","DOI":"10.1007\/s10040-015-1278-6","article-title":"Calibration of a large-scale groundwater flow model using GRACE data: A case study in the Qaidam Basin, China","volume":"23","author":"Hu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Hydrogeol. J."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Bonsor, H.C., and MacDonald, A.M. (2011). An Initial Estimate of Depth to Groundwater across Africa, British Geological Survey. British Geological Survey, OR\/11\/067."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L08402","DOI":"10.1029\/2005GL025285","article-title":"Post-processing removal of correlated errors in GRACE data","volume":"33","author":"Swenson","year":"2006","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"W04531","DOI":"10.1029\/2011WR011453","article-title":"Accuracy of scaled GRACE terrestrial water storage estimates","volume":"48","author":"Landerer","year":"2012","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2648","DOI":"10.1002\/2014JB011547","article-title":"Improved methods for observing Earth\u2019s time variable mass distribution with GRACE using spherical cap mascons","volume":"120","author":"Watkins","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res.-Sol. Earth"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7490","DOI":"10.1002\/2016WR019344","article-title":"Quantifying and reducing leakage errors in the JPL RL05M GRACE Mascon solution","volume":"52","author":"Wiese","year":"2016","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Biancale, R., Lemoine, J.-M., Balmino, G., Loyer, S., Bruisma, S., Perosanz, F., Marty, J.-C., and G\u00e9gout, P. (2006). 3 Years of Geoid Variations from GRACE and LAGEOS Data at 10-Day Intervals from July 2002 to March 2005, CNES\/GRGS. CNES\/GRGS product."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1175\/JHM560.1","article-title":"The TRMM multi-satellite precipitation analysis: Quasi global, multi-year, combined-sensor precipitation estimates at fine scale","volume":"8","author":"Huffman","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Hydrometeorol."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"R Core Team (2017). A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing (R Version 3.4.3), R Foundation for Statistical Computing."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1002\/2015WR017349","article-title":"Quantifying renewable groundwater stress with GRACE","volume":"51","author":"Richey","year":"2015","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12102","DOI":"10.1002\/2016GL071407","article-title":"On the frequency of the 2015 monsoon season drought in the Indo-Gangetic Plain","volume":"43","author":"Mishra","year":"2016","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11445","DOI":"10.1002\/2017GL076005","article-title":"Global assessment of groundwater sustainability based on storage anomalies","volume":"44","author":"Thomas","year":"2017","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1175\/BAMS-85-3-381","article-title":"The global land data assimilation system","volume":"85","author":"Rodell","year":"2004","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1013","DOI":"10.1175\/BAMS-84-8-1013","article-title":"The common land model (CLM)","volume":"84","author":"Dai","year":"2003","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_54","first-page":"8851","article-title":"Implementation of Noah land surface model advances in the National Centers for Environmental Prediction operational mesoscale Eta model","volume":"108","author":"Ek","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"8613","article-title":"A new parameterization for surface and groundwater interactions and its impact on water budgets with the variable infiltration capacity (VIC) land surface model","volume":"108","author":"Liang","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2697","DOI":"10.1029\/91JD01696","article-title":"Modelling the land surface boundary in climate models as a composite of independent vegetation stands","volume":"97","author":"Koster","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"W02508","DOI":"10.1029\/2011WR010993","article-title":"Monitoring groundwater storage changes in the highly seasonal humid tropics: Validation of GRACE measurements in the Bengal Basin","volume":"48","author":"Shamsudduha","year":"2012","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1016\/j.advwatres.2016.04.005","article-title":"Exploring hydro-meteorological drought patterns over the Greater Horn of Africa (1979\u20132014) using remote sensing and reanalysis products","volume":"94","author":"Awange","year":"2016","journal-title":"Adv. Water Resour."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.1130\/G31812.1","article-title":"Integration of GRACE (Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment) data with traditional data sets for a better understanding of the time-dependent water partitioning in African watersheds","volume":"39","author":"Ahmed","year":"2011","journal-title":"Geology"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8817","DOI":"10.1002\/2015WR017582","article-title":"A GRACE-based assessment of interannual groundwater dynamics in the Community Land Model","volume":"51","author":"Swenson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D23114","DOI":"10.1029\/2010JD014474","article-title":"Wetland inundation dynamics in a model of land surface climate: Evaluation in the Niger inland delta region","volume":"115","author":"Dadson","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1175\/2008JHM1004.1","article-title":"Rainfall and water resources variability in sub-Saharan Africa during the twentieth century","volume":"10","author":"Conway","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Hydrometeorol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Favreau, G., Cappelaere, B., Massuel, S., Leblanc, M., Boucher, M., Boulain, N., and Leduc, C. (2009). Land clearing, climate variability, and water resources increase in semiarid southwest Niger: A review. Water Resour. Res., 45.","DOI":"10.1029\/2007WR006785"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1293","DOI":"10.1007\/s10040-014-1143-z","article-title":"Long-term increase in diffuse groundwater recharge following expansion of rainfed cultivation in the Sahel, West Africa","volume":"22","author":"Ibrahim","year":"2014","journal-title":"Hydrogeol. J."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.advwatres.2014.06.010","article-title":"Water storage changes and climate variability within the Nile Basin between 2002 and 2011","volume":"73","author":"Awange","year":"2014","journal-title":"Adv. Water Resour."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8160","DOI":"10.1002\/2013WR014350","article-title":"Potential impacts of climate and environmental change on the stored water of Lake Victoria Basin and economic implications","volume":"49","author":"Awange","year":"2013","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nicholson, S.E., Funk, C., and Fink, A.H. (2017). Rainfall over the African continent from the 19th through the 21st century. Glob. Planet. Chang.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gloplacha.2017.12.014"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1016\/j.earscirev.2014.05.009","article-title":"The use of GRACE data to monitor natural and anthropogenic induced variations in water availability across Africa","volume":"136","author":"Ahmed","year":"2014","journal-title":"Earth Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"651","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-018-0123-1","article-title":"Emerging trends in global freshwater availability","volume":"557","author":"Rodell","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Batterbee, R.W., Gasse, F., and Stickley, C.E. (2004). Groundwater as an archive of climatic and environmental change: Europe to Africa. Past Climate Variability through Europe and Africa, Kluwer Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4020-2121-3"},{"key":"ref_71","first-page":"41","article-title":"A GIS-Based Flow Model for Groundwater Resources Management in the Development Areas in the Eastern Sahara, Africa","volume":"Volume 13","author":"Adelana","year":"2004","journal-title":"Applied Groundwater Studies in Africa"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2574","DOI":"10.1002\/2014WR016853","article-title":"Global analysis of approaches for deriving total waterstorage changes from GRACE satellites","volume":"51","author":"Long","year":"2015","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-1694(00)00403-0","article-title":"Long-term rise in a Sahelian water-table: The Continental Terminal in South-West Niger","volume":"243","author":"Leduc","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1007\/s10040-001-0179-z","article-title":"Spatial and temporal distribution of groundwater recharge in northern Nigeria","volume":"10","author":"Edmunds","year":"2002","journal-title":"Hydrogeol. J."},{"key":"ref_75","first-page":"33","article-title":"Groundwater recharge through the unsaturated zone of southeastern Botswana: A study of chlorides and environmental isotopes","volume":"191","author":"Gieske","year":"1990","journal-title":"Regional. Hydrol. Proc. Ljubljana Symp. IAHS Publ."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-1694(95)02843-9","article-title":"A comparison of recharge estimates to a fractured sedimentary aquifer in South Africa from a chloride mass balance and an integrated surface-subsurface model","volume":"179","author":"Sami","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_77","unstructured":"Xu, Y., and Beekman, H.E. (2003). Multiple Tracer Profiling in Botswana\u2014GRES findings. GW Recharge Estimation in Southern Africa, UNESCO."},{"key":"ref_78","first-page":"5","article-title":"Characteristics of local groundwater recharge cycles in South African semi-arid hard rock terrains: Rainfall-groundwater interaction","volume":"38","author":"Vermeulen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Water SA"},{"key":"ref_79","first-page":"305","article-title":"Groundwater in Africa\u2014Palaeowater, Climate Change and Modern Recharge","volume":"Volume 13","author":"Adelana","year":"2008","journal-title":"Applied Groundwater Studies in Africa"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E1080","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1704665115","article-title":"Global models underestimate large decadal declining and rising water storage trends relative to GRACE satellite data","volume":"115","author":"Scanlon","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5698","DOI":"10.1002\/2014WR015595","article-title":"Global-scale assessment of groundwater depletion and related groundwater abstractions: Combining hydrological modelling with information from well observations and GRACE satellites","volume":"50","author":"Schuh","year":"2014","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res"},{"key":"ref_82","first-page":"10459","article-title":"GRACE Detected Rise of Groundwater in the Sahelian Niger River Basin","volume":"122","author":"Werth","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res.-Sol. Earth"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/10\/6\/904\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T15:07:52Z","timestamp":1760195272000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/10\/6\/904"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,6,8]]},"references-count":82,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,6]]}},"alternative-id":["rs10060904"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs10060904","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,6,8]]}}}