{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T04:00:41Z","timestamp":1760241641289,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,6,14]],"date-time":"2018-06-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1528934400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["61375008,61331015"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61375008,61331015"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"ESA\/NRCSS Dragon-4 Program","award":["32235"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["32235"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Ship detection using polarimetric synthetic aperture radar (PolSAR) data has attracted a lot of attention in recent years. Polarimetry can provide information regarding the scattering mechanisms of targets, which helps discriminate between ships and sea clutter. This enhancement is particularly valuable when we aim at detecting smaller vessels in rough sea states. This work exploits a ship detector called the Geometrical Perturbation-Polarimetric Notch Filter (GP-PNF), and it is aimed at improving its performance especially when less polarimetric images are available (e.g., dual-polarimetric data). The idea is to design a new polarimetric feature vector containing more features that are renowned to allow separation between ships and sea clutter. Then, a Principal Component Analysis (PCA) is further used to reduce the dimensionality of the new feature space. Experiments on four real Sentinel-1 datasets are carried out to demonstrate the validity of the proposed method and compare it against other ship detectors. Analyses of the experimental results show that the proposed algorithm can not only reduce the false alarms significantly, but also enhance the target-to-clutter ratio (TCR) so that it can more effectively detect weaker ships.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10060948","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,6,14]],"date-time":"2018-06-14T11:06:06Z","timestamp":1528974366000},"page":"948","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["A Ship Detector Applying Principal Component Analysis to the Polarimetric Notch Filter"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7192-5153","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tao","family":"Zhang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Shanghai Key Lab. of Intelligent Sensing and Recognition, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4531-3102","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Armando","family":"Marino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Natural Sciences, The University of Stirling, Stirling FK9 4LA, UK"}]},{"given":"Huilin","family":"Xiong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Shanghai Key Lab. of Intelligent Sensing and Recognition, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China"}]},{"given":"Wenxian","family":"Yu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Shanghai Key Lab. of Intelligent Sensing and Recognition, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,6,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lessing, P., Bernard, L., Tetreault, B., and Chaffin, J. (2006, January 18\u201321). Use of the automatic identification system (AIS) on autonomous weather buoys for maritime domain awareness applications. Proceedings of the OCEANS 2006, Boston, MA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/OCEANS.2006.307023"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Velotto, D., Soccorsi, M., and Lehner, S. (2012, January 22\u201327). Azimuth ambiguities removal for ship detection using full polarimetric X-band SAR data. Proceedings of the 2012 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS), Munich, Germany.","DOI":"10.1109\/IGARSS.2012.6351863"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Lee, J.S., and Pottier, E. (2009). Polarimetric Radar Imaging: From Basics to Applications, CRC Press."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1109\/36.368224","article-title":"Localized Radon transform-based detection of ship wakes in SAR images","volume":"33","author":"Copeland","year":"1995","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1080\/07038992.1997.10874677","article-title":"Ship detection by the RADARSAT SAR: Validation of detection model predictions","volume":"23","author":"Vachon","year":"1997","journal-title":"Can. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1010","DOI":"10.1109\/36.508418","article-title":"An automatic ship and ship wake detection system for spaceborne SAR images in coastal regions","volume":"34","author":"Eldhuset","year":"1996","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1536","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2015.2412174","article-title":"A bilateral CFAR algorithm for ship detection in SAR images","volume":"12","author":"Leng","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2005.845033","article-title":"A novel algorithm for ship detection in SAR imagery based on the wavelet transform","volume":"2","author":"Tello","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Chaney, R., Burl, M., and Novak, L. (1990, January 7\u201310). On the performance of polarimetric target detection algorithms. Proceedings of the IEEE International Radar Conference, Arlington, VA, USA."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1214\/aoms\/1177704250","article-title":"Statistical analysis based on a certain multivariate complex Gaussian distribution (an introduction)","volume":"34","author":"Goodman","year":"1963","journal-title":"Ann. Math. Stat."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Novak, L.M., Burl, M.C., Irving, W., and Owirka, G. (1991, January 26\u201327). Optimal polarimetric processing for enhanced target detection. Proceedings of the National Telesystems Conference, Atlanta, GA, USA."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Liu, T., and Lampropoulos, G. (August, January 31). A new polarimetric CFAR ship detection system. Proceedings of the Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS), Denver, CO, USA."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"843","DOI":"10.1080\/2150704X.2013.804220","article-title":"On the novel use of model-based decomposition in SAR polarimetry for target detection on the sea","volume":"4","author":"Sugimoto","year":"2013","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, J., Huang, W., Yang, J., Chen, P., and Zhang, H. (2011, January 19\u201322). Polarization scattering characteristics of some ships using polarimetric SAR images. Proceedings of the International Society for Optics and Photonics SAR Image Analysis, Modeling, and Techniques XI, Prague, Czech Republic.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.897975"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2507","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2002.805070","article-title":"Characterization of target symmetric scattering using polarimetric SARs","volume":"40","author":"Touzi","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"793","DOI":"10.1109\/36.499784","article-title":"Simulated polarimetric signatures of primitive geometrical shapes","volume":"34","author":"Cameron","year":"1996","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1109\/36.551935","article-title":"An entropy based classification scheme for land applications of polarimetric SAR","volume":"35","author":"Cloude","year":"1997","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"384","DOI":"10.1109\/JOE.2012.2198931","article-title":"Reflection symmetry for polarimetric observation of man-made metallic targets at sea","volume":"37","author":"Nunziata","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE J. Ocean. Eng."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1049\/el:20010104","article-title":"Similarity between two scattering matrices","volume":"37","author":"Yang","year":"2001","journal-title":"Electron. Lett."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1089","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2012.2191611","article-title":"GOPCE-based approach to ship detection","volume":"9","author":"Yang","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marino, A., and Woodhouse, I.H. (2009, January 12\u201317). Selectable target detector using the polarization fork. Proceedings of the IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS), Cape Town, South Africa.","DOI":"10.1109\/IGARSS.2009.5418287"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3787","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2012.2185703","article-title":"Detecting depolarized targets using a new geometrical perturbation filter","volume":"50","author":"Marino","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1780","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2015.2425873","article-title":"PolSAR ship detection based on superpixel-level scattering mechanism distribution features","volume":"12","author":"Wang","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, T., Yang, Z., Xiong, H., and Yu, W. (2016, January 10\u201315). Ship detection based on the power of the Radarsat-2 polarimetric data. Proceedings of the IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS), Beijing, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/IGARSS.2016.7729318"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3348","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2017.2671904","article-title":"PolSAR Ship Detection Based on the Polarimetric Covariance Difference Matrix","volume":"10","author":"Zhang","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"(2016, March 21). MacDonald, Dettwiler and Associates Ltd.. Available online: https:\/\/mdacorporation.com\/docs\/default-source\/technical-documents\/geospatial-services\/52-1238_rs2_product_description.pdf?sfvrsn=10."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"(2016, March 25). Sentinel-1 Document Library. Available online: https:\/\/sentinel.esa.int\/web\/sentinel\/user-guides\/sentinel-1-sar\/document-library\/-\/asset_publisher\/1dO7RF5fJMbd\/content\/sentinel-1-product-definition."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"993","DOI":"10.1109\/JOE.2016.2520216","article-title":"First comparison of Sentinel-1 and TerraSAR-X data in the framework of maritime targets detection: South Italy case","volume":"41","author":"Velotto","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE J. Ocean. Eng."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vachon, P.W., Wolfe, J., and Greidanus, H. (2012, January 22\u201327). Analysis of Sentinel-1 marine applications potential. Proceedings of the IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS), Munich, Germany.","DOI":"10.1109\/IGARSS.2012.6351187"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pelich, R., Long\u00e9p\u00e9, N., Mercier, G., Hajduch, G., and Garello, R. (2015, January 26\u201331). Performance evaluation of Sentinel-1 data in SAR ship detection. Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS), Milan, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/IGARSS.2015.7326217"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jolliffe, I.T. (1986). Principal component analysis and factor analysis. Principal Component Analysis, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4757-1904-8"},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"484","article-title":"Digital image processing","volume":"28","author":"Gonzalez","year":"1977","journal-title":"Prentice Hall Int."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1123","DOI":"10.1109\/TCOM.1973.1091550","article-title":"Information extraction, SNR improvement, and data compression in multispectral imagery","volume":"21","author":"Ready","year":"1973","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Commun."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1359","DOI":"10.1080\/01431169308953962","article-title":"A comparative analysis of standardised and unstandardised principal components analysis in remote sensing","volume":"14","author":"Eklundh","year":"1993","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1017","DOI":"10.1109\/36.312890","article-title":"Intensity and phase statistics of multilook polarimetric and interferometric SAR imagery","volume":"32","author":"Lee","year":"1994","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4302","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2016.2539200","article-title":"Statistical modeling of PMA detector for ship detection in high-resolution dual-polarization SAR images","volume":"54","author":"Gao","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marino, A. (2012). A New Target Detector Based on Geometrical Perturbation Filters for Polarimetric Synthetic Aperture Radar (POL-SAR), Springer Science & Business Media.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-27163-2"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2357","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2009.2038592","article-title":"A polarimetric target detector using the Huynen fork","volume":"48","author":"Marino","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2986","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2012.2211883","article-title":"A new polarimetric change detector in radar imagery","volume":"51","author":"Marino","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1219","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2013.2247741","article-title":"A notch filter for ship detection with polarimetric SAR data","volume":"6","author":"Marino","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-9868.00196","article-title":"Probabilistic principal component analysis","volume":"61","author":"Tipping","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. R. Stat. Soc. Ser. B"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, T., Marino, A., and Xiong, H. (2017, January 23\u201328). A ship detection applying principal component analysis to the polarimetric notch filter. Proceedings of the IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS), Fort Worth, TX, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/IGARSS.2017.8127340"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"902","DOI":"10.1016\/j.imavis.2009.11.005","article-title":"A new ranking method for principal components analysis and its application to face image analysis","volume":"28","author":"Thomaz","year":"2010","journal-title":"Image Vis. Comput."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"727","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2003.810702","article-title":"Inversion of surface parameters from polarimetric SAR","volume":"41","author":"Hajnsek","year":"2003","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arnesen, T.N., Olsen, R.B., and Weydahl, D.J. (2005, January 17\u201321). Ship detection signatures in AP mode data. Proceedings of the 56th International Astronautical Congress, Fukuoka, Japan.","DOI":"10.2514\/6.IAC-05-B1.P.06"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hannevik, T.N.A. (2012, January 22\u201327). Multi-channel and multi-polarisation ship detection. Proceedings of the IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS), Munich, Germany.","DOI":"10.1109\/IGARSS.2012.6352451"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hannevik, T.N. (2010, January 25\u201330). Polarisation and mode combinations for ship detection using radarsat-2. Proceedings of the IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS), Honolulu, HI, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/IGARSS.2010.5653596"},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Evans, J.V., and Hagfors, T. (1968). Radar measurements of target scattering properties. Radar Astronomy, McGraw\u2013Hill."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"885","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2012.2182760","article-title":"Ship and oil-spill detection using the degree of polarization in linear and hybrid\/compact dual-pol SAR","volume":"5","author":"Shirvany","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5403","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2015.2422134","article-title":"Optimization of the degree of polarization for enhanced ship detection using polarimetric RADARSAT-2","volume":"53","author":"Touzi","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"(2017, May 10). UK Met Office, Available online: http:\/\/www.metoffice.gov.uk\/public\/weather."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"(2017, June 18). National Meteorological Center of CMA, Available online: http:\/\/eng.nmc.cn\/."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/10\/6\/948\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T15:08:45Z","timestamp":1760195325000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/10\/6\/948"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,6,14]]},"references-count":52,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,6]]}},"alternative-id":["rs10060948"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs10060948","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,6,14]]}}}