{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,16]],"date-time":"2026-05-16T10:13:11Z","timestamp":1778926391116,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":101,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,6,19]],"date-time":"2018-06-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1529366400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Estimates of turbulent fluxes (i.e., sensible and latent heat fluxes H and LE) over heterogeneous surfaces is not an easy task. The heterogeneity caused by the contrast in vegetation, hydric and soil conditions can generate a large spatial variability in terms of surface\u2013atmosphere interactions. This study considered the issue of using a thermal-based two-source energy model (TSEB) driven by MODIS (Moderate resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) and MSG (Meteosat Second Generation) observations in conjunction with an aggregation scheme to derive area-averaged H and LE over a heterogeneous watershed in Niamey, Niger (Wankama catchment). Data collected in the context of the African Monsoon Multidisciplinary Analysis (AMMA) program, including a scintillometry campaign, were used to test the proposed approach. The model predictions of area-averaged turbulent fluxes were compared to data acquired by a Large Aperture Scintillometer (LAS) set up over a transect about 3.2 km-long and spanning three vegetation types (millet, fallow and degraded shrubs). First, H and LE fluxes were estimated at the MSG-SEVIRI grid scale by neglecting explicitly the subpixel heterogeneity. Moreover, the impact of upscaling the model\u2019s inputs was investigated using in-situ input data and three aggregation schemes of increasing complexity based on MODIS products: a simple averaging of inputs at the MODIS resolution scale, another simple averaging scheme that considers scintillometer footprint extent, and the weighted average of inputs based on the footprint weighting function. The H and LE simulated using the footprint weighted method were more accurate than for the two other aggregation rules despite the heterogeneity of the landscape. The statistical values are: correlation coefficient (R) = 0.71, root mean square error (RMSE) = 63 W\/m2 and mean bias error (MBE) = \u221223 W\/m2 for H and an R = 0.82, RMSE = 88 W\/m2 and MBE = 45 W\/m2 for LE. This study opens perspectives for the monitoring of convective and evaporative fluxes over heterogeneous landscape based on medium resolution satellite products.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10060974","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,6,19]],"date-time":"2018-06-19T11:20:36Z","timestamp":1529407236000},"page":"974","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Combining a Two Source Energy Balance Model Driven by MODIS and MSG-SEVIRI Products with an Aggregation Approach to Estimate Turbulent Fluxes over Sparse and Heterogeneous Vegetation in Sahel Region (Niger)"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Bouchra Ait","family":"Hssaine","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"LMME D\u00e9partement de physique, Facult\u00e9 des sciences Semlalia, Universit\u00e9 Cadi Ayyad, 40000 Marrakech, Morocco"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jamal","family":"Ezzahar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Equipe de Math\u00e9matiques et Traitement de l\u2019Information (MTI), Ecole Nationale des Sciences Appliqu\u00e9es (ENSA), 46000 Safi, Morocco"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Lionel","family":"Jarlan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre d\u2019Etudes Spatiales de la Biosph\u00e8re, Universit\u00e9 de Toulouse, CNES, CNRS, IRD, UPS, 31400 Toulouse, France"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Olivier","family":"Merlin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre d\u2019Etudes Spatiales de la Biosph\u00e8re, Universit\u00e9 de Toulouse, CNES, CNRS, IRD, UPS, 31400 Toulouse, France"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Said","family":"Khabba","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"LMME D\u00e9partement de physique, Facult\u00e9 des sciences Semlalia, Universit\u00e9 Cadi Ayyad, 40000 Marrakech, Morocco"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4885-2555","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aurore","family":"Brut","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre d\u2019Etudes Spatiales de la Biosph\u00e8re, Universit\u00e9 de Toulouse, CNES, CNRS, IRD, UPS, 31400 Toulouse, France"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8595-7949","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Salah","family":"Er-Raki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"LP2M2E, Facult\u00e9 des Sciences et Techniques, Universit\u00e9 Cadi Ayyad, 40000 Marrakech, Morocco"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jamal","family":"Elfarkh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"LP2M2E, Facult\u00e9 des Sciences et Techniques, Universit\u00e9 Cadi Ayyad, 40000 Marrakech, Morocco"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Bernard","family":"Cappelaere","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"HydroSciences Montpellier, Universit\u00e9 de Montpellier, CNRS, IRD, 34000 Montpellier, France"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ghani","family":"Chehbouni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre d\u2019Etudes Spatiales de la Biosph\u00e8re, Universit\u00e9 de Toulouse, CNES, CNRS, IRD, UPS, 31400 Toulouse, France"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,6,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1007\/s00585-994-0053-0","article-title":"HAPEX-Sahel: A large scale study of land-atmosphere interactions in the semi-arid tropics","volume":"12","author":"Goutorbe","year":"1994","journal-title":"Ann. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1002\/asl.323","article-title":"The AMMA field campaigns: Accomplishments and lessons learned","volume":"12","author":"Lebel","year":"2011","journal-title":"Atmos. Sci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"362","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0493(1996)124<0362:TAROTU>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"The anomalous rainfall over the United States during July 1993: Sensitivity to land surface parameterization and soil moisture anomalies","volume":"124","author":"Beljaars","year":"1993","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1138","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1100217","article-title":"Regions of strong coupling between soil moisture and precipitation","volume":"305","author":"Koster","year":"2004","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1498","DOI":"10.1126\/science.215.4539.1498","article-title":"Influence of Land-Surface Evapotranspiration on the Earth\u2019s Climate","volume":"215","author":"Shukla","year":"1982","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Allen, R.G., Pereira, L.S., Raes, D., and Smith, M. (1998). FAO Irrigation and Drainage No 56: Guidelines for Computing Crop Water Requirements, FAO."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1016\/0168-1923(95)02265-Y","article-title":"A two-source approach for estimating soil and vegetation energy fluxes from observations of directional radiometric surface temperature","volume":"77","author":"Norman","year":"1995","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)0733-9437(2007)133:4(395)","article-title":"Satellite-based energy balance for mapping evapotranspiration with internalized calibration (METRIC)-applications","volume":"133","author":"Allen","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Irrig. Drain. Eng."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-6-85-2002","article-title":"The surface energy balance system (SEBS) for estimation of turbulent heat fluxes","volume":"6","author":"Su","year":"2002","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"404","DOI":"10.1175\/JHM503.1","article-title":"Contribution of thermal infrared remote sensing data in multiobjective calibration of a dual source SVAT model","volume":"7","author":"Coudert","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Hydrometeorol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1016\/0921-8181(95)00043-7","article-title":"The ISBA Land surface parametrisation scheme","volume":"13","author":"Noilhan","year":"1996","journal-title":"Glob. Planet. Charg."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-1694(94)05085-C","article-title":"A Simple Soil-Plant-Atmosphere Transfer model (SiSPAT): Development and field verification","volume":"166","author":"Braud","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2006.11.002","article-title":"Analysis of evaporative fraction diurnal behaviour","volume":"143","author":"Gentine","year":"2007","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1007\/s10712-008-9037-z","article-title":"Estimating land surface evaporation: Areview of methods using remotely sensed surface temperature data","volume":"29","author":"Kalma","year":"2008","journal-title":"Surv. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D22103","DOI":"10.1029\/2008JD011590","article-title":"Watershed allied telemetry experimental research","volume":"114","author":"Li","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3421","DOI":"10.5194\/angeo-24-3421-2006","article-title":"Dayside aurorae and polar arcs under south east IMF orientation","volume":"24","author":"Sandholt","year":"2006","journal-title":"Ann. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2719","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160600567761","article-title":"Evaluation of AVHRR PAL and GIMMS 10-day composite NDVI time series products using SPOT-4 vegetation data for the African continent","volume":"27","author":"Fensholt","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2008.03.006","article-title":"A remote sensing driven distributed hydrological model of the Senegal River basin","volume":"354","author":"Stisen","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2219","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-14-2219-2010","article-title":"Reference crop evapotranspiration derived from geo-stationary satellite imagery: A case study for the Fogera flood plain, NW-Ethiopia and the Jordan Valley, Jordan","volume":"14","author":"Trigo","year":"2010","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"7079","article-title":"Evapotranspiration modelling at large scale using near-real time MSG SEVIRI derived data","volume":"7","author":"Ghilain","year":"2010","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. Discuss."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-15-163-2011","article-title":"Mapping daily evapotranspiration and dryness index in the East African highlands using MODIS and SEVIRI data","volume":"15","author":"Sun","year":"2011","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6163","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160903401387","article-title":"Assessment of MODIS sun-sensor geometry variations effect on observed NDVI using MSG SEVIRI geostationary data","volume":"31","author":"Fensholt","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"63","article-title":"Image mining for drought monitoring in eastern Africa using Meteosat SEVIRI data","volume":"12","author":"Rulinda","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2008.11.045","article-title":"Towards an understanding of coupled physical and biological processes in the cultivated Sahel\u20132. Vegetation and carbon dynamics","volume":"375","author":"Boulain","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaridenv.2009.05.008","article-title":"Water balance and vegetation change in the Sahel: A case study at the watershed scale with an eco-hydrological model","volume":"73","author":"Boulain","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Arid Environ."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"204","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2008.12.002","article-title":"Towards an understanding of coupled physical and biological processes in the cultivated Sahel\u20131. Energy and water","volume":"375","author":"Ramier","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2009.01.010","article-title":"Combining scintillometer measurements and an aggregation scheme to estimatearea-averaged latent heat flux during the AMMA experiment","volume":"375","author":"Ezzahar","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5001","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-18-5001-2014","article-title":"Building a field- and model-based climatology of local water and energy cycles in the cultivated Sahel\u2013Annual budgets and seasonality","volume":"18","author":"Velluet","year":"2014","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Allies, A., Demarty, J., Olioso, A., Bouzou Moussa, I., Issoufou, H.B.-A., Velluet, C., Bahir, M., Mainassara, I., O\u00ef, M., and Chazarin, J.P. (2018). Adapting EVASPA\/S-SEBI to evapotranspiration mapping in the Sahel with uncertainty characterization: The E3S method. Remote Sens. Environ., in press."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1080\/11263500802710036","article-title":"Combining a large aperture scintillometer and estimates of available energy to derive evapotranspiration over several agricultural fields in a semi-arid region","volume":"143","author":"Ezzahar","year":"2009","journal-title":"Plant Biosyst."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2179","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-13-2179-2009","article-title":"Footprint issues in scintillometry overheterogeneous landscapes","volume":"13","author":"Timmermans","year":"2009","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"D21107","article-title":"How sensitive is SEBAL to changes in input variables, domain size and satellite sensor?","volume":"116","author":"Long","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2012.12.007","article-title":"Effects of spatial aggregation on the multi-scale estimation of evapotranspiration","volume":"131","author":"Ershadi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2016.04.008","article-title":"Upscaling evapotranspiration measurements from multi-site to thesatellite pixel scale over heterogeneous land surfaces","volume":"230\u2013231","author":"Liu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Saadi, S., Boulet, G., Bahir, M., Brut, A., Mougenot, B., Fanise, P., Simonneaux, V., and Chabaane, Z.L. (2017). Assessment of actual evapotranspiration over a semi-arid heterogeneous land surface by means of coupled low resolution remote sensing data with energy balance model: Comparaison to extra Large Aperture Scintillometer measurements. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci.","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-2017-454"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2415","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0477(2001)082<2415:FANTTS>2.3.CO;2","article-title":"FLUXNET: A new tool to study the temporal and spatial variability of ecosystem-scale carbon dioxide, water vapor, and energy flux densities","volume":"82","author":"Baldocchi","year":"2001","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3600","DOI":"10.1111\/gcb.12649","article-title":"Measuring fluxes of trace gases and energy between ecosystems and atmosphere the state and future of the eddy covariance method","volume":"20","author":"Baldocchi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Glob. Chang. Biol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2371","DOI":"10.12688\/f1000research.8962.1","article-title":"Terrestrial Carbon Cycle Variability [version 1; referees: 2 approved]","volume":"5","author":"Baldocchi","year":"2016","journal-title":"F1000Research"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"520","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2017.05.015","article-title":"Inter-annual variability of net and gross ecosystem carbon fluxes: A review","volume":"249","author":"Baldocchi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6295","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2010.508058","article-title":"Validating remotely sensed land surface fluxes in heterogeneous terrain with large aperture scintillometry","volume":"32","author":"Brunsell","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2013.02.025","article-title":"Measurements of evapotranspiration from eddy-covariance systems and large aperture scintillometers in the Hai River Basin, China","volume":"487","author":"Liu","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-1923(99)00005-2","article-title":"Evaluation of soil and vegetation heat flux predictions using a simple two-source model with radiometric temperatures for partial canopy cover","volume":"94","author":"Kustas","year":"1991","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agwat.2017.08.007","article-title":"Performance of the Two-Source Energy Budget (TSEB) Model for the Monitoring of Evapotranspiration Over Irrigated Annual Crops in North Africa","volume":"193","author":"Diarra","year":"2017","journal-title":"Agric. Water Manag."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"104","article-title":"Calibrating an evapotranspiration model using radiometric surface temperature, vegetation cover fraction and near-surface soil moisture data","volume":"256","author":"Merlin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1007\/s10113-006-0014-0","article-title":"Hydrologic and land use impacts on vegetation growth and NPP at the watershed scale in a semi-arid environment","volume":"6","author":"Boulain","year":"2006","journal-title":"Reg. Environ. Chang."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2009.06.021","article-title":"The AMMA-CATCH experiment in the cultivated Sahelian area of South-West Niger. Investigating water cycle response to a fluctuating climate and changing environment","volume":"375","author":"Cappelaere","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2009.03.020","article-title":"AMMA-CATCH studies in the Sahelian region of West-Africa: An overview","volume":"375","author":"Lebel","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1242","DOI":"10.1080\/02626667.2011.609171","article-title":"Integrated surface water-groundwater modelling in the context of increasing water reserves of a Sahelian aquifer","volume":"56","author":"Massuel","year":"2011","journal-title":"Hydrol. Sci. J."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-3774(96)01282-6","article-title":"Hillslope dynamics of on-farm generation of surface water flows: The case of rainfed cultivation of pearl millet on sandy soil in the Sahel","volume":"33","author":"Valentin","year":"1997","journal-title":"Agric. Water Manag."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Mauder, M., and Foken, T. (2004, December 19). Documentation and Instruction Manual of the Eddy Covariance Software Package TK2. Report No. 26, U. Bayreuth\u2013Abt. Mikrometeorologie. Available online: http:\/\/www.geo.uni-bayreuth.de\/mikrometeorologie\/ARBERG\/ARBERG26.pdf."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1018966204465","article-title":"Sonic anemometer tilt correction algorithms","volume":"99","author":"Wilczak","year":"2001","journal-title":"Bound. Layer Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00164332","article-title":"Temperature measurement with a sonic anemometer and its application to heat and moisture fluxes","volume":"26","author":"Schotanus","year":"1983","journal-title":"Bound. Layer Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00122754","article-title":"Frequency response corrections for eddy correlation systems","volume":"37","author":"Moore","year":"1986","journal-title":"Bound. Layer Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.49710644707","article-title":"Correction of flux measurements for density effects due to heat and water vapour transfer","volume":"106","author":"Webb","year":"1980","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0426(2003)020<0143:OSOKAL>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Oxygen sensitivity of krypton and lymann\u2014A hygrometers","volume":"20","author":"Kohsiek","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"Ochs, G.R., and Wilson, J.J. (1993). A Second-Generation Large-Aperture Scintillometer, NOAA Tech. Memo, ERL WPL-232; NOAA Environmental Research Laboratories Publ."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Meijninger, W.M.L., Moene, A., Hartogensis, O., and De Bruin, H.A.R. (2000). User Manual and Technical Information to the Large Aperture Scintillometer, Wageningen University."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0450(1976)015<0043:TCEOTA>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"The combined effect of temperature and humidity fluctuations on refractive index","volume":"15","author":"Wesely","year":"1976","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"635","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1022807617073","article-title":"Effects of water vapour on the structure parameter of the refractive index for near-infrared radiation","volume":"107","author":"Moene","year":"2003","journal-title":"Bound. Layer Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"915","DOI":"10.1175\/1525-7541(2003)004<0915:DOAEHF>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Derivation of an Effective Height for Scintillometers: La Poza Experiment in Northwest Mexico","volume":"4","author":"Hartogensis","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Hydrometeorol."},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"Panofsky, H.A., and Dutton, J.A. (1984). Atmospheric Turbulence, John Wiley."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Andreas Edgar, L. (1988, January 10). Estimating Cn2 over snow and sea ice from meteorological quantities. Proceedings of the SPIE 0926, Optical, Infrared, Millimeter Wave Propagation Engineering, Orlando, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.945784"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00120238","article-title":"The measurement of turbulent surface layer fluxes by use of bichromatic scintillation","volume":"58","author":"Thiermann","year":"1992","journal-title":"Bound. Layer Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00710889","article-title":"The scintillation method tested over a dry vineyard area","volume":"76","author":"Kohsiek","year":"1995","journal-title":"Bound. Layer Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"Haugen, D.A. (1973). On surface-layer turbulence. Workshop on Micrometeorology, AMS."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-1923(00)00185-4","article-title":"Methods to aggregate turbulent fluxes over heterogeneous surfaces: Application to SALSA data set in Mexico","volume":"105","author":"Chehbouni","year":"2000","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5161","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160802036417","article-title":"An Integrated Modeling and Remote Sensing Approach for Hydrological Study in Arid and Semi-arid Regions: The SUDMED Programme","volume":"29","author":"Chehbouni","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2006.10.027","article-title":"On the application of scintillometry over heterogeneous grids","volume":"334","author":"Ezzahar","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-3774(02)00131-2","article-title":"Evapotranspiration fluxes over mixed vegetation areas measured from large scintillometer","volume":"58","author":"Hemakumara","year":"2003","journal-title":"Agric. Water Manag."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1019644420081","article-title":"Large aperture scintillometer used over a homogeneous irrigated area, partly affected by regional advection","volume":"105","author":"Hoedjes","year":"2002","journal-title":"Bound. Layer Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"741","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-2-741-2009","article-title":"Uncertainty analysis of computational methods for deriving sensible heat flux values from scintillometer measurements","volume":"2","author":"Solignac","year":"2009","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1018","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0426(1994)011<1018:HFIFET>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"How far is far enough? The fetch requirements for micrometeorological measurement of surface fluxes","volume":"11","author":"Horst","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00122089","article-title":"Footprint prediction of scalar fluxes using a Markovian analysis","volume":"52","author":"Leclerc","year":"1990","journal-title":"Bound. Layer Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_74","unstructured":"Lewis, P., and Barnsley, M.J. (2018, June 18). Influence of the Sky Radiance Distribution on Various Formulations of the Earth Surface Albedo. Available online: http:\/\/www2.geog.ucl.ac.uk\/~plewis\/LewisBarnsley1994.pdf."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"892","DOI":"10.1109\/36.508406","article-title":"A generalised split-window algorithm for retrieving land surface temperature from space, IEEE Trans","volume":"34","author":"Wan","year":"1996","journal-title":"Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_76","unstructured":"Madeira, C. (2002, January 8\u201310). Generalised Split-Window Algorithm for Retrieving Land-Surface Temperature from MSG\/SEVIRI Data. Proceedings of the SAF on Land Surface Analysis Training Workshop, Lisbon, Portugal."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1495","DOI":"10.1029\/97WR00704","article-title":"A two-source approach for estimating turbulent fluxes using multiple angle thermal infrared observations","volume":"33","author":"Kustas","year":"1997","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brutsaert, W. (1982). Evaporation into the Atmosphere, D. Reidel.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-017-1497-6"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1016\/0168-1923(94)02209-3","article-title":"Measurement of heat and vapor transfer at the soil surface beneath a maize canopy using source plates","volume":"75","author":"Sauer","year":"1995","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Campbell, G.S., and Norman, J.M. (1998). An Introduction to Environmental Biophysics, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4612-1626-1"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1016\/0168-1923(87)90021-9","article-title":"Analysis of an empirical model for soil heat flux under a growing wheat crop for estimating evaporation by an infrared-temperature based energy balance equation","volume":"39","author":"Choudhury","year":"1987","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0493(1972)100<0081:OTAOSH>2.3.CO;2","article-title":"On the assessment of surface heat flux and evaporation using large-scale parameters","volume":"100","author":"Priestley","year":"1972","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/0168-1923(94)90070-1","article-title":"Estimating sensible heat flux from radiometric temperature over sparse millet","volume":"68","author":"Lhomme","year":"1994","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1386","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0442(1995)008<1386:AFASPA>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"An approach for averaging surface temperature and surface fluxes over heterogeneous surfaces","volume":"5","author":"Chehbouni","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4395","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-6-4395-2006","article-title":"Some aspects of the energy balance closure problem","volume":"6","author":"Foken","year":"2006","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2003.09.005","article-title":"Surface energy balance closure in an arid region: Role of soil heat flux","volume":"122","author":"Heusinkveld","year":"2004","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2008.12.027","article-title":"Combined analysis of energy and water balances to estimate latent heat flux of a Sudanian small catchment","volume":"375","author":"Guyot","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"597","DOI":"10.1127\/0941-2948\/2006\/0167","article-title":"Impact of post-field data processing on eddy covariance flux estimates and energy balance closure","volume":"15","author":"Mauder","year":"2006","journal-title":"Meteorol. Z."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11494","DOI":"10.3390\/rs61111494","article-title":"Evaluation of MODIS LST Products Using Longwave Radiation Ground Measurements in the Northern Arid Region of China","volume":"6","author":"Yu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2475","DOI":"10.3390\/rs5052475","article-title":"Geometric Accuracy Investigations of SEVIRI High Resolution Visible (HRV) Level 1.5 Imagery","volume":"5","author":"Aksakal","year":"2013","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2011.08.003","article-title":"Spatio-temporal surface soil heat flux estimates from satellite data; results for the AMMA experiment, Fakara supersite","volume":"154\u2013155","author":"Verhoef","year":"2012","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"742","DOI":"10.1029\/WR011i005p00742","article-title":"On a derivable formula for long-wave radiation from clear skies","volume":"11","author":"Brutsaert","year":"1975","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.49709741404","article-title":"Momentum absorption by vegetation","volume":"97","author":"Thom","year":"1971","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-1571(82)90057-7","article-title":"Aerodynamic roughness of a plant canopy: A numerical experiment","volume":"26","author":"Shaw","year":"1982","journal-title":"Agric. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.1175\/JHM561.1","article-title":"Comparison of large aperture scintillometer and Eddy covariance measurements: Can thermal infrared data be used to capture footprint induced differences?","volume":"8","author":"Hoedjes","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Hydrometeorol."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1007\/s10546-005-9001-0","article-title":"Monitoring the sensible heat flux over urban areas using large aperture scintillometry: Case study of marseille city during the escompte experiment","volume":"118","author":"Lagouarde","year":"2005","journal-title":"Bound. Layer Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1719","DOI":"10.1109\/36.942550","article-title":"Influence of near-surface soil moisture on regional scale heat fluxes: Model results using microwave remote sensing data from SGP97","volume":"39","author":"Bindlish","year":"2001","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_98","first-page":"479","article-title":"Two source energy balance model to calculate E.; T.; and ET: Comparison of Priestley-Taylor and Penman-Monteith formulations and two time scaling methods","volume":"57","author":"Colaizzi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Trans. ASABE"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1029\/95WR02920","article-title":"On the concept of equilibrium evaporation and the value of the priestley-taylor coefficient","volume":"32","author":"Eichinger","year":"1996","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"574","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2016.06.034","article-title":"Applications of a thermal-based two-source energy balance model using Priestley-Taylor approach for surface temperature partitioning under advective conditions","volume":"540","author":"Song","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Anderson, M.C., Norman, J.M., Mecikalski, J.R., Otkin, J.A., and Kustas, W.P. (2007). A climatological study of evapotranspiration and moisture stress across the continental United States based on thermal remote sensing: 1. Model formulation. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 112.","DOI":"10.1029\/2006JD007506"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/10\/6\/974\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T15:09:21Z","timestamp":1760195361000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/10\/6\/974"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,6,19]]},"references-count":101,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,6]]}},"alternative-id":["rs10060974"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs10060974","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,6,19]]}}}