{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,2]],"date-time":"2026-03-02T17:57:48Z","timestamp":1772474268267,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":21,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,9]],"date-time":"2018-07-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1531094400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100009629","name":"Fondazione Cassa Di Risparmio Di Trento E Rovereto","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2014.0408, 2143\/14"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2014.0408, 2143\/14"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100009629","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100009888","name":"Regione Toscana","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["Plan POR FESR 2014-2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Plan POR FESR 2014-2020"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100009888","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study reports on a low-cost unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV)-borne light detection and ranging (LiDAR) system called LasUAV, from hardware selection and integration to the generation of three-dimensional point clouds, and an assessment of its performance. Measurement uncertainties were estimated in angular static, angular dynamic, and real flight conditions. The results of these experiments indicate that the point cloud elevation accuracy in the case of angular static acquisition was 3.8 cm, and increased to 3.9 cm in angular dynamic acquisition. In-flight data were acquired over a target surveyed by nine single passages in different flight directions and platform orientations. In this case, the uncertainty of elevation ranged between 5.1 cm and 9.8 cm for each single passage. The combined elevation uncertainty in the case of multiple passages (i.e., the combination of one to nine passages from the set of nine passages) ranged between 5 cm (one passage) and 16 cm (nine passages). The study demonstrates that the positioning device, i.e., the Global Navigation Satellite System real-time kinematic (GNSS RTK) receiver, is the sensor that mostly influences the system performance, followed by the attitude measurement device and the laser sensor. Consequently, strong efforts and greater economic investment should be devoted to GNSS RTK receivers in low-cost custom integrated systems.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10071094","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,9]],"date-time":"2018-07-09T11:18:53Z","timestamp":1531135133000},"page":"1094","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":32,"title":["Development and Performance Assessment of a Low-Cost UAV Laser Scanner System (LasUAV)"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4529-4615","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chiara","family":"Torresan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"CREA Research Centre for Forestry and Wood, Viale Santa Margherita, 80 (52100) Arezzo, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Andrea","family":"Berton","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Clinical Physiology (IFC), National Research Council (CNR), Via Moruzzi, 1 (56124) Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Federico","family":"Carotenuto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Biometeorology (IBIMET), National Research Council (CNR), Via Giovanni Caproni, 8 (50145) Firenze, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8404-7927","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ugo","family":"Chiavetta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CREA Research Centre for Forestry and Wood, Viale Santa Margherita, 80 (52100) Arezzo, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Franco","family":"Miglietta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Biometeorology (IBIMET), National Research Council (CNR), Via Giovanni Caproni, 8 (50145) Firenze, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1700-5647","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alessandro","family":"Zaldei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Biometeorology (IBIMET), National Research Council (CNR), Via Giovanni Caproni, 8 (50145) Firenze, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7631-2623","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Beniamino","family":"Gioli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Biometeorology (IBIMET), National Research Council (CNR), Via Giovanni Caproni, 8 (50145) Firenze, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maltamo, M., Naesset, E., and Vauhkonen, J. (2014). Introdution to Forestry Applications of Airborne Laser Scanning. Forestry Applications of Airborne Laser Scanning: Concepts and Case Studies, Springer. Managing Forest Ecosystems 27.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-017-8663-8"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Fritsch, D. (2011). State of the Art in Laser Scanning. Photogrammetric Week \u201911, Wichmann\/VDE Verlag, Belin & Offenbach."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.5721\/EuJRS20134605","article-title":"State of the Art of Ground and Aerial Laser Scanning Technologies for High-Resolution Topography of the Earth Surface","volume":"46","author":"Pirotti","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.5721\/EuJRS20124503","article-title":"Airborne Laser Scanning to support forest resource management under alpine, temperate and Mediterranean environments in Italy","volume":"45","author":"Corona","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eur. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"125","article-title":"Stima operativa di parametri dendrometrici forestali con riprese LiDAR invernali a bassa risoluzione","volume":"44","author":"Clementel","year":"2010","journal-title":"Ital. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2427","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2016.1252477","article-title":"Forestry applications of UAVs in Europe: A review","volume":"38","author":"Torresan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Amon, P., Rieger, P., Riegl, U., and Pfennigbauer, M. (2014, January 16\u201321). Introducing a New Class of Survey\u2013Grade Laser Scanning by use Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS). Proceedings of the FIG Congress 2014, Engaging the Challenges\u2014Enhancing the Relevance, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Amon, P., Riegl, U., Rieger, P., and Pfennigbauer, M. (2015, January 11\u201313). UAV-based laser scanning to meet special challenges in LiDAR surveying. Proceedings of the Geomatics Indaba 2015\u2014Stream 2, Ekurhuleni, South Africa."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Choi, K., Lee, I., Hong, J., Oh, T., and Shin, S.W. (2009, January 14\u201317). Developing a UAV-based rapid mapping system for emergency response. Proceedings of the SPIE 7332, Unmanned Systems Technology XI, Orlando, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.818492"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"701","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2008.2010314","article-title":"UAV-borne 3-D mapping system by multisensor integration","volume":"47","author":"Nagai","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"514","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2010.08.002","article-title":"A low-cost multi-sensoral mobile mapping system and its feasibility for tree measurements","volume":"65","author":"Jaakkola","year":"2010","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"426","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2010.2079913","article-title":"Mini-UAV-borne LiDAR for fine-scale mapping","volume":"8","author":"Lin","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1519","DOI":"10.3390\/rs4061519","article-title":"Development of a UAV-LiDAR System with application to Forest Inventory","volume":"4","author":"Wallace","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Takahashi, K., Thu, P.T.A., Irie, H., and Yamada, T. (2015, January 24\u201328). Development of a low-cost small drone-based laser-scanner system for rice monitoring. Proceedings of the ACRS 2015\u201436th Asian Conference on Remote Sensing: Fostering Resilient Growth in Asia, Manila, Philippines."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Christiansen, M.P., Martin, P., Laursen, M.S., J\u00f8rgensen, R.N., Skovsen, S., and Gislum, R. (2017). Designing and Testing a UAV Mapping System for Agricultural Field Surveying. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17122703"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1790","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2017.2736013","article-title":"Development of LiDAR-Based UAV System for Environment Reconstruction","volume":"14","author":"Chiang","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Van Rossum, G. (1995). Python Tutorial, Technical Report CS-R9526, 1995, Centrum voor Wiskunde en Informatica (CWI)."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-2716(99)00015-5","article-title":"Airborne laser scanning: Basic relations and formulas","volume":"54","author":"Baltsavias","year":"1999","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"(2018, July 08). OIML V 2-200. Available online: https:\/\/www.bipm.org\/en\/publications\/guides\/#vim."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Takasu, T., Kubo, N., and Yasuda, A. (2007, January 5\u20137). Development, evaluation and application of RTKLIB: A program library for RTK-GPS. Proceedings of the International Symposium on GPS\/GNSS 2007, Johor Bahru, Malaysia."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1192","DOI":"10.1104\/pp.15.00722","article-title":"High-Resolution Three-Dimensional Structural Data Quantify the Impact of Photoinhibition on Long-Term Carbon Gain in Wheat Canopies in the Field","volume":"169","author":"Burgess","year":"2015","journal-title":"Plant Physiol."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/10\/7\/1094\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T15:11:49Z","timestamp":1760195509000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/10\/7\/1094"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,9]]},"references-count":21,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,7]]}},"alternative-id":["rs10071094"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs10071094","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,9]]}}}