{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,6]],"date-time":"2026-01-06T02:15:13Z","timestamp":1767665713339,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,16]],"date-time":"2018-08-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1534377600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Spanish Research Grant","award":["CGL2016-80687-RAEI\/FEDER and RNM148"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CGL2016-80687-RAEI\/FEDER and RNM148"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are rapidly growing remote sensing platforms for capturing high-resolution images of exposed rock surfaces. We used a DJI Phantom 3 Professional (P3P) quadcopter to capture aerial images that were used to generate a high-resolution three-dimensional (3-D) model of the Jokisivu open-pit gold deposit that is located in southwestern Finland. 158 overlapping oblique and nadir images were taken and processed with Agisoft Photoscan Pro to generate textured 3-D surface models. In addition, 69 overlapping images were taken from the steep faces of the open pit. We assessed the precision of the 3-D model by deploying ground control points (GCPs) and the average errors were found minimal along X (2.0 cm), Y (1.2 cm), and Z (5.0 cm) axes. The steep faces of the open pit were used for virtual structural measurements and kinematic analyses in CloudCompare and ArcGIS to distinguish the orientation of different fracture sets and statistical categorization, respectively. Three distinct fracture sets were observed. The NW-SE and NE-SW striking fractures form a conjugate geometry, whereas the NNW-SSE striking fractures cut the conjugate fracture set. The orientation of conjugate fractures match well with the resource model of the deposit and NW- and NE-trending segments of regional-scale anastomosing shear zones. Based on the conjugate geometry of fracture sets I and II, and the regional pattern of anastomosing shear system lead us to interpret an origin of gold mineralization in two stages. An early N-S or NNW-SSE crustal shortening, corresponding to the regional D4 (ca. 1.83\u20131.81 Ga) or pre-D4 (ca. 1.87\u20131.86 Ga) Svecofennian tectonic event(s) that produced anastomosing shear zones. Subsequent E-W directed D5 contraction (ca. 1.79\u20131.77 Ga) partly reactivated the anastomosing shear zones with the formation of conjugate system, which controlled the migration of fluids and gold mineralization in SW Finland.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10081296","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,16]],"date-time":"2018-08-16T11:39:08Z","timestamp":1534419548000},"page":"1296","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":36,"title":["Virtual Structural Analysis of Jokisivu Open Pit Using \u2018Structure-from-Motion\u2019 Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) Photogrammetry: Implications for Structurally-Controlled Gold Deposits in Southwest Finland"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4537-595X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohammad","family":"Sayab","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Geological Survey of Finland, P.O. Box 96, FI-02151 Espoo, Finland"}]},{"given":"Domingo","family":"Aerden","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departmento de Geodin\u00e1mica, Universidad de Granada, 18002 Granada, Spain"}]},{"given":"Markku","family":"Paananen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Geological Survey of Finland, P.O. Box 96, FI-02151 Espoo, Finland"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2659-3268","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Petri","family":"Saarela","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dragon Mining, Uudenniityntie 224, FI-32700 Huittinen, Finland"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Eisenbei\u00df, H. (2009). UAV Photogrammetry. [Ph.D. Thesis, ETH Z\u00fcrich]."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carrivick, J., Smith, M., and Quincey, D. (2016). Structure from Motion in the Geosciences, Wiley-Blackwell.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118895818"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2012.08.021","article-title":"\u201cStructure-from-Motion\u201d photogrammetry: A low-cost, effective tool for geoscience applications","volume":"179","author":"Westoby","year":"2012","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsg.2014.10.007","article-title":"Ground-based and UAV-Based photogrammetry: A multi-scale, high-resolution mapping tool for structural geology and paleoseismology","volume":"69","author":"Bemis","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Struct. Geol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cageo.2013.10.013","article-title":"Building a virtual outcrop, extracting geological information from it, and sharing the results in Google Earth via OpenPlot and Photoscan: An example from the Khaviz Anticline (Iran)","volume":"63","author":"Tavani","year":"2014","journal-title":"Comput. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6635","DOI":"10.3390\/rs70606635","article-title":"Integration of UAV-based photogrammetry and terrestrial laser scanning for the three-dimensional mapping and monitoring of open-pit mine areas","volume":"7","author":"Tong","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsg.2016.02.012","article-title":"Mapping folds and fractures in basement and cover rocks using UAV photogrammetry, Cape Liptrap and Cape Paterson, Victoria, Australia","volume":"85","author":"Vollgger","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Struct. Geol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cageo.2014.03.014","article-title":"A new approach for semi-automatic rock mass joints recognition from 3D point clouds","volume":"68","author":"Riquelme","year":"2014","journal-title":"Comput. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijrmms.2015.12.008","article-title":"Characterization of rock slopes through slope mass rating using 3D point clouds","volume":"84","author":"Riquelme","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsg.2017.04.004","article-title":"LiDAR, UAV or compass-clinometer? Accuracy, coverage and the effects on structural models","volume":"98","author":"Cawood","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Struct. Geol."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Ojala, J. (2007). Gold in the Central Lapland Greenstone Belt, Geological Survey of Finland. Special Pa."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Eilu, P. (2012). Mineral Deposits and Metallogeny of Fennoscandia, Geological Survey of Finland. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sayab, M., Suuronen, J.-P., Moln\u00e1r, F., Villanova, J., Kallonen, A., O\u2019Brien, H., Lahtinen, R., and Lehtonen, M. (2016). Three-dimensional textural and quantitative analyses of orogenic gold at the nanoscale. Geology, 44.","DOI":"10.1130\/G38074.1"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.1017\/S0016756809990628","article-title":"Geochronology and structural relationships of mesothermal gold mineralization in the Palaeoproterozoic Jokisivu prospect, southern Finland","volume":"147","author":"Saalmann","year":"2010","journal-title":"Geol. Mag."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.1979.0006","article-title":"The Interpretation of Structure from Motion","volume":"203","author":"Ullman","year":"1979","journal-title":"Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1023\/B:VISI.0000029664.99615.94","article-title":"Distinctive image features from scale-invariant keypoints","volume":"60","author":"Lowe","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Comput. Vis."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luhmann, T., Robson, S., Kyle, S., and Boehm, J. (2014). Close-Range Photogrammetry and 3D Imaging, De Gruyter. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1515\/9783110302783"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1002\/arp.399","article-title":"Taking computer vision aloft\u2014Archaeological three-dimensional reconstructions from aerial photographs with photoscan","volume":"18","author":"Verhoeven","year":"2011","journal-title":"Archaeol. Prospect."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Seitz, S.M., Curless, B., Diebel, J., Scharstein, D., and Szeliski, R. (2006, January 17\u201322). A Comparison and Evaluation of Multi-View Stereo Reconstruction Algorithms. Proceedings of the 2006 IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR\u201906), New York, NY, USA."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bradley, D., Boubekeur, T., and Heidrich, W. (2008, January 23\u201328). Accurate multi-view reconstruction using robust binocular stereo and surface meshing. Proceedings of the 2008 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, Anchorage, AK, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR.2008.4587792"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1007\/s11263-007-0107-3","article-title":"Modeling the world from Internet photo collections","volume":"80","author":"Snavely","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Comput. Vis."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Triggs, B., McLauchlan, P.F., Hartley, R.I., and Fitzgibbon, A.W. (2000). Bundle Adjustment\u2014A Modern Synthesis, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/3-540-44480-7_21"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1392","DOI":"10.3390\/rs4051392","article-title":"An automated technique for generating georectified mosaics from ultra-high resolution Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) imagery, based on Structure from Motion (SFM) point clouds","volume":"4","author":"Turner","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2738","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2013.2265295","article-title":"Direct georeferencing of ultrahigh-resolution UAV imagery","volume":"52","author":"Turner","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1413","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.3609","article-title":"Mitigating systematic error in topographic models derived from UAV and ground-based image networks","volume":"39","author":"James","year":"2014","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2015.02.009","article-title":"UAV photogrammetry for topographic monitoring of coastal areas","volume":"104","author":"Henriques","year":"2015","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Luukkonen, A. (1994). Main Geological Features, Metallogeny and Hydrothermal Alteration Phenomena of Certain Gold and Gold-Tin-Tungsten Prospects in Southern Finland, University of Helsinki."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1241","DOI":"10.5194\/se-8-1241-2017","article-title":"Rapid, semi-automatic fracture and contact mapping for point clouds, images and geophysical data","volume":"8","author":"Thiele","year":"2017","journal-title":"Solid Earth"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"799","DOI":"10.5194\/isprs-archives-XLI-B5-799-2016","article-title":"Facets: A cloudcompare plugin to extract geological planes from unstructured 3D point clouds","volume":"41","author":"Dewez","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci. ISPRS Arch."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Korsman, K., Koistinen, T., Kohonen, J., Wennerstrom, M., Ekdahl, E., Honkamo, M., Idman, H., and Pekkala, Y. (1997). Bedrock Map of Finland 1:1,000,000 Scale, Geological Survey of Finland."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1130\/G36250.1","article-title":"High-resolution X-ray computed microtomography: A holistic approach to metamorphic fabric analyses","volume":"43","author":"Sayab","year":"2015","journal-title":"Geology"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1016\/j.precamres.2006.07.005","article-title":"Preservation of Palaeoproterozoic early Svecofennian structures in the Orij\u00e4rvi area, SW Finland-Evidence for polyphase strain partitioning","volume":"150","year":"2006","journal-title":"Precambrian Res."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1016\/j.precamres.2015.09.003","article-title":"Near-orthogonal deformation successions in the poly-deformed Paleoproterozoic Martimo belt: Implications for the tectonic evolution of Northern Fennoscandia","volume":"270","author":"Lahtinen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Precambrian Res."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1016\/0040-1951(81)90278-X","article-title":"Foliation development\u2014The contribution, geometry and significance of progressive, bulk, inhomogeneous shortening","volume":"75","author":"Bell","year":"1981","journal-title":"Tectonophysics"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tecto.2010.07.001","article-title":"Temporal evolution of surface rupture deduced from coseismic multi-mode secondary fractures: Insights from the October 8, 2005 (Mw 7.6) Kashmir earthquake, NW Himalaya","volume":"493","author":"Sayab","year":"2010","journal-title":"Tectonophysics"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1747-5457.2001.tb00659.x","article-title":"The significance of strike slip faulting in basement zagros fold and thrust belt","volume":"24","author":"Hessami","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Pet. Geol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1144\/GSL.SP.2000.170.01.10","article-title":"Remote sensing and geomorphometric assessment of topographic complexity and erosion dynamics in the Nanga Parbat massif Remote sensing and geomorphometric assessment of topographic complexity and erosion","volume":"170","author":"Bishop","year":"2000","journal-title":"Geol. Soc. Lond. Spec. Publ."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1016\/j.precamres.2009.09.007","article-title":"Tectonic significance of structural successions preserved within low-strain pods: Implications for thin- to thick-skinned tectonics vs. multiple near-orthogonal folding events in the Palaeo-Mesoproterozoic Mount Isa Inlier (NE Australia)","volume":"175","author":"Sayab","year":"2009","journal-title":"Precambrian Res."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.precamres.2007.04.011","article-title":"Regional structural profiles in the western part of the Palaeoproterozoic Skellefte Ore District, northern Sweden","volume":"159","author":"Malehmir","year":"2007","journal-title":"Precambrian Res."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sayab, M., Miettinen, A., Aerden, D., and Karell, F. (2017). Orthogonal switching of AMS axes during type-2 fold interference: Insights from integrated X-ray computed tomography, AMS and 3D petrography. J. Struct. Geol., 103.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsg.2017.09.002"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peterson, D.L., Brass, J.A., Smith, W.H., Langford, G., Wegener, S., Dunagan, S., Hammer, P., and Snook, K. (2003). Platform options of free-flying satellites, UAVs or the International Space Station for remote sensing assessment of the littoral zone. Int. J. Remote Sens.","DOI":"10.1080\/0143116031000066963"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Read, J., and Stacey, P. (2009). Guidelines for Open Pit Slope Design, CSIRO Publishing.","DOI":"10.1071\/9780643101104"},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"76","article-title":"Open-pit mining geomorphic feature characterisation","volume":"42","author":"Chen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1177\/0309133313515293","article-title":"Mapping landslide displacements using Structure from Motion (SfM) and image correlation of multi-temporal UAV photography","volume":"38","author":"Lucieer","year":"2014","journal-title":"Prog. Phys. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S0169-1368(00)00002-0","article-title":"Late-kinematic timing of orogenic gold deposits and significance for computer-based exploration techniques with emphasis on the Yilgarn Block, Western Australia","volume":"17","author":"Groves","year":"2000","journal-title":"Ore Geol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"407","article-title":"Distribution, Character, and Genesis of Gold Deposits in Metamorphic Terranes","volume":"100","author":"Goldfarb","year":"2005","journal-title":"Soc. Econ. Geol."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/10\/8\/1296\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T15:19:04Z","timestamp":1760195944000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/10\/8\/1296"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,16]]},"references-count":46,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,8]]}},"alternative-id":["rs10081296"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs10081296","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,16]]}}}