{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,9]],"date-time":"2026-03-09T20:39:15Z","timestamp":1773088755154,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":58,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,21]],"date-time":"2018-08-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1534809600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities","award":["2018ZDPY07"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2018ZDPY07"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The amount and growth rate of carbon emissions have been accelerated on a global scale since the industrial revolution (1800), especially in recent decades. This has resulted in a significant influence on the natural environment and human societies. Therefore, carbon emission reduction receives continuously increasing public attention and has long been under debate. In this study, we made use of the land-use specific carbon emission coefficients from previous studies and estimated the land-use carbon emissions and carbon intensities of the Yangtze River Delta Urban Agglomeration (YRDUA)\u2014which consists of 26 eastern Chinese cities\u2014from Landsat image data and socio-economic statistics in 1995, 2005, and 2015. In addition, spatial autocorrelation models including both global and local Moran\u2019s I were used to analyze the spatial autocorrelation of carbon emissions and carbon intensities. It was found that (1) the YRDUA witnessed a rapidly increasing trend for net carbon emissions and a decreasing trend for carbon intensity over the two decades; (2) the spatial differences in carbon intensity had gradually narrowed, but were large in carbon emissions and had gradually increased; and (3) the carbon emissions in 2005 and 2015 had significant spatial autocorrelations. We concluded that (1) from 1995 to 2015 in the YRDUA, carbon emissions were large for the cities along the Yangtze River and carbon intensities were high for Anhui province\u2019s resource-based cities, while both carbon emissions and carbon intensities were small for Zhejiang province\u2019s cities; (2) over two decades, the increase in carbon emissions from urban land was approximately twice the increase in urban land area. Our study can provide useful insights into the assignment of carbon reduction tasks within the YRDUA.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10091334","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,21]],"date-time":"2018-08-21T11:12:42Z","timestamp":1534849962000},"page":"1334","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":95,"title":["Land-Use Carbon Emissions Estimation for the Yangtze River Delta Urban Agglomeration Using 1994\u20132016 Landsat Image Data"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Yifan","family":"Cui","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Environmental Science and Spatial Informatics, China University of Mining and Technology, Daxue Road 1, Xuzhou 221116, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7763-1108","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Long","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Environmental Science and Spatial Informatics, China University of Mining and Technology, Daxue Road 1, Xuzhou 221116, China"},{"name":"Department of Geography, Earth System Science, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Brussels, Belgium"}]},{"given":"Longqian","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Environmental Science and Spatial Informatics, China University of Mining and Technology, Daxue Road 1, Xuzhou 221116, China"}]},{"given":"Yu","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Environmental Science and Spatial Informatics, China University of Mining and Technology, Daxue Road 1, Xuzhou 221116, China"},{"name":"School of Geography, Geomatics and Planning, Jiangsu Normal University, Shanghai Road 101, Xuzhou 221116, China"}]},{"given":"Liang","family":"Cheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Environmental Science and Spatial Informatics, China University of Mining and Technology, Daxue Road 1, Xuzhou 221116, China"},{"name":"Henry School of Agricultural Science and Engineering, Shaoguan University, Daxue Road 26, Shaoguan 512005, China"}]},{"given":"Xisheng","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Environmental Science and Spatial Informatics, China University of Mining and Technology, Daxue Road 1, Xuzhou 221116, China"}]},{"given":"Xiaoyan","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Environmental Science and Spatial Informatics, China University of Mining and Technology, Daxue Road 1, Xuzhou 221116, China"},{"name":"School of Geography, Geomatics and Planning, Jiangsu Normal University, Shanghai Road 101, Xuzhou 221116, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1704","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0812721106","article-title":"Irreversible climate change due to carbon dioxide emissions","volume":"106","author":"Solomon","year":"2009","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"831","DOI":"10.1038\/ngeo689","article-title":"Trends in the sources and sinks of carbon dioxide","volume":"2","author":"Raupach","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1007\/s10584-009-9596-0","article-title":"The importance of three centuries of land-use change for the global and regional terrestrial carbon cycle","volume":"97","author":"Goldewijk","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5125","DOI":"10.5194\/bg-9-5125-2012","article-title":"Carbon emissions from land use and land-cover change","volume":"9","author":"Houghton","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biogeosciences"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.1601063","article-title":"Carbon emissions from land-use change and management in China between 1990 and 2010","volume":"2","author":"Lai","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"997","DOI":"10.1029\/1999GB900046","article-title":"Estimating historical changes in global land cover: Croplands from 1700 to 1992","volume":"13","author":"Ramankutty","year":"1999","journal-title":"Glob. Biogeochem. Cycles"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1029\/1999GB001232","article-title":"Estimating global land use change over the past 300 years: The HYDE Database","volume":"15","author":"Goldewijk","year":"2001","journal-title":"Glob. Biogeochem. Cycles"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14256","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.182560099","article-title":"Carbon emissions from tropical deforestation and regrowth based on satellite observations for the 1980s and 1990s","volume":"99","author":"Defries","year":"2002","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"378","article-title":"The annual net flux of carbon to the atmosphere from changes in land use 1850\u20131990*","volume":"51B","author":"Houghton","year":"2004","journal-title":"Tellus"},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Eggleston, H.S., and Buendia, L. (2006). Carbon emission factor. 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, Institute for Global Environmental Strategies. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Castillo-Santiago, M.A., Hellier, A., Tipper, R., and de Jong, B.H.J. (2007). Carbon emissions from land-use change: An analysis of causal factors in Chiapas, Mexico. Mitig. Adapt. Strateg. Glob. Chang., 1213\u20131235.","DOI":"10.1007\/s11027-006-9060-7"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2014.03.046","article-title":"Land use, total carbon emissions change and low carbon land management in Coastal Jiangsu, China","volume":"103","author":"Chuai","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2311","DOI":"10.1080\/0143116051233132666","article-title":"Land use\/land cover changes in the coastal zone of Ban Don Bay, Thailand using Landsat 5 TM data","volume":"26","author":"Muttitanon","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1016\/S0305-9006(03)00066-7","article-title":"Remote sensing technology for mapping and monitoring land-cover and land-use change","volume":"61","author":"Rogan","year":"2004","journal-title":"Prog. Plan."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"320","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enpol.2012.11.043","article-title":"Analysis of China\u2019s carbon dioxide flow for 2008","volume":"54","author":"Mu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Energy Policy"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1017","DOI":"10.1038\/nclimate2388","article-title":"Determinants of stagnating carbon intensity in China","volume":"4","author":"Guan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"(2018, March 24). China-U.S. Joint Presidential Statement on Climate Change, Available online: http:\/\/en.ndrc.gov.cn\/newsrelease\/201509\/t20150929_755626."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envsci.2012.12.005","article-title":"A study on carbon emissions in Shanghai 2000\u20132008, China","volume":"27","author":"Wang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Policy"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3658","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2011.07.005","article-title":"Quantification of provincial-level carbon emissions from energy consumption in China","volume":"15","author":"Geng","year":"2011","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"214","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2012.05.027","article-title":"China\u2019s CO2 emissions estimated from the bottom up: Recent trends, spatial distributions, and quantification of uncertainties","volume":"59","author":"Zhao","year":"2012","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"742","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2016.03.073","article-title":"New provincial CO2 emission inventories in China based on apparent energy consumption data and updated emission factors","volume":"184","author":"Shan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, M., Xiao, H., Sun, D., and Li, Y. (2018). Spatial differences in and influences upon the sustainable development level of the Yangtze River Delta Urban Agglomeration in China. Sustainability, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/su10020411"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"408","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2018.01.009","article-title":"Industrial sectors\u2019 energy rebound effect: An empirical study of Yangtze River Delta urban agglomeration","volume":"145","author":"Ouyang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"(2018, March 24). National Development and Reform Commission Housing and Urban-Rural Development Department Notice on Issuing the Development Plan of the Yangtze River Delta Urban Agglomeration, (In Chinese)."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2747","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2004.836388","article-title":"Landsat-5 TM reflective-band absolute radiometric calibration","volume":"42","author":"Chander","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10737","DOI":"10.3390\/rs70810737","article-title":"Research on the contribution of urban land surface moisture to the alleviation effect of urban land surface heat based on Landsat 8 data","volume":"7","author":"Zhang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1737","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2008.2009880","article-title":"Automatic generation of seamline network using area voronoi diagrams with overlap","volume":"47","author":"Pan","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jvolgeores.2017.07.014","article-title":"Testing random forest classification for identifying lava flows and mapping age groups on a single Landsat 8 image","volume":"345","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2783","DOI":"10.1890\/07-0539.1","article-title":"Random forests for classification in ecology","volume":"88","author":"Cutler","year":"2007","journal-title":"Ecology"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envsoft.2012.01.014","article-title":"imageR-A user-oriented implementation for remote sensing image analysis with Random Forests","volume":"35","author":"Waske","year":"2012","journal-title":"Environ. Model. Softw."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.1016\/j.patrec.2005.08.011","article-title":"Random forests for land cover classification","volume":"27","author":"Gislason","year":"2006","journal-title":"Pattern Recognit. Lett."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Macarof, P., and Statescu, F. (2017). Comparasion of NDBI and NDVI as indicators of surface urban heat island effect in Landsat 8 imagery: A case study of Iasi. Present Environ. Sustain. Dev., 11.","DOI":"10.1515\/pesd-2017-0032"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Y., Huang, F., and Wei, Y. (2013). Water body extraction from Landsat ETM+ image using MNDWI and K-T transformation. Int. Conf. Geoinform.","DOI":"10.1109\/Geoinformatics.2013.6626162"},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"419","article-title":"Accuracy assessment of satellite derived land-cover data: A review","volume":"60","author":"Janssen","year":"1994","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"101","article-title":"Effects of different land use patterns of carbon emisson in Guangyuan city of Sichuan province","volume":"32","author":"Shi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Bull. Soil Water Conserv."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1341","DOI":"10.1007\/s11430-007-0049-1","article-title":"Terrestrial vegetation carbon sinks in China, 1981\u20132000","volume":"50","author":"Fang","year":"2007","journal-title":"Sci. China Ser. D Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1016\/S1872-2032(08)60025-6","article-title":"Carbon sequestration and its potential by wetland ecosystems in China","volume":"28","author":"Duan","year":"2008","journal-title":"Acta Ecol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Lai, L. (2010). Carbon Emission Effect of Land Use in China. [Ph.D. Thesis, Nanjing University]. (In Chinese)."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"(2018, March 30). Guidelines for the Preparation of Provincial Greenhouse Gas Inventories of China. (In Chinese)."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"National Bureau of Statistics (2016). China Energy Statistical Yearbook 2016, (In Chinese)."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"187","article-title":"The saddlepoint approximation of Moran\u2019s I\u2019s and local Moran\u2019s Ii\u2019s reference sistributions and their numerical evaluation","volume":"34","author":"Tiefelsdorf","year":"2002","journal-title":"Geogr. Anal."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2401","DOI":"10.5194\/bg-11-2401-2014","article-title":"Using Moran\u2019s i and GIS to study the spatial pattern of forest litter carbon density in a subtropical region of southeastern China","volume":"11","author":"Fu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biogeosciences"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csda.2015.09.010","article-title":"On Moran\u2019s i coefficient under heterogeneity","volume":"95","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Comput. Stat. Data Anal."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"212","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2008.03.011","article-title":"Use of local Moran\u2019s I and GIS to identify pollution hotspots of Pb in urban soils of Galway, Ireland","volume":"398","author":"Zhang","year":"2008","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apgeochem.2017.07.011","article-title":"Using local Moran\u2019s I to identify contamination hotspots of rare earth elements in urban soils of London","volume":"88","author":"Yuan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Appl. Geochem."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"865","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolmodel.2010.09.036","article-title":"The urban growth, size distribution and spatio-temporal dynamic pattern of the Yangtze River Delta megalopolitan region, China","volume":"222","author":"Tian","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ecol. Model."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2006.04.003","article-title":"Socio-economic driving forces of land-use change in Kunshan, the Yangtze River Delta economic area of China","volume":"83","author":"Long","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jue.2006.12.006","article-title":"Growth, population and industrialization, and urban land expansion of China","volume":"63","author":"Deng","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Urban Econ."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1040","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2016.09.177","article-title":"A long-term analysis of urbanization process, landscape change, and carbon sources and sinks: A case study in China\u2019s Yangtze River Delta region","volume":"141","author":"Han","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2016.04.022","article-title":"CO2, economic growth, and energy consumption in China\u2019s provinces: Investigating the spatiotemporal and econometric characteristics of China\u2019s CO2 emissions","volume":"69","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"683","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolecon.2006.08.016","article-title":"Changes in carbon intensity in China: Empirical findings from 1980\u20132003","volume":"62","author":"Fan","year":"2007","journal-title":"Ecol. Econ."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1016\/j.habitatint.2004.02.004","article-title":"Spaces of globalisation: Institutional reforms and spatial economic development in the Pudong new area, Shanghai","volume":"30","author":"Marton","year":"2006","journal-title":"Habitat Int."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"364","DOI":"10.1016\/j.habitatint.2007.11.003","article-title":"Local planning and global implementation: Foreign investment and urban development of Pudong, Shanghai","volume":"32","author":"Wu","year":"2008","journal-title":"Habitat Int."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1016\/S1872-583X(09)60006-1","article-title":"Characteristics of carbon emission in China and analysis on its cause","volume":"18","author":"Hu","year":"2008","journal-title":"China Popul. Resour. Environ."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cities.2016.07.009","article-title":"Shrinking cities and resource-based economy: The economic restructuring in China\u2019s mining cities","volume":"60","author":"He","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cities"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2015.10.077","article-title":"Empirical analysis on the factors influencing national and regional carbon intensity in China","volume":"55","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_57","first-page":"197","article-title":"China transport CO2 emission study","volume":"7","author":"Cai","year":"2011","journal-title":"Adv. Chin. Chang. Res."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"(2018, August 09). CO2 Emissions from Fuel Combustion Highlights. Available online: https:\/\/www.iea.org\/publications\/freepublications\/publication\/CO2EmissionsfromFuelCombustionHighlights2017.pdf."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/10\/9\/1334\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T15:20:13Z","timestamp":1760196013000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/10\/9\/1334"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,21]]},"references-count":58,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,9]]}},"alternative-id":["rs10091334"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs10091334","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,21]]}}}