{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,14]],"date-time":"2026-04-14T16:48:17Z","timestamp":1776185297423,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":118,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,28]],"date-time":"2018-08-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1535414400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000183","name":"Army Research Office","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["W911NF-18-21-0007"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["W911NF-18-21-0007"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000183","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000001","name":"National Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["1539070"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1539070"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000001","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Bathymetric surveying to gather information about depths and underwater terrain is increasingly important to the sciences of hydrology and geomorphology. Submerged terrain change detection, water level, and reservoir storage monitoring demand extensive bathymetric data. Despite often being scarce or unavailable, this information is fundamental to hydrodynamic modeling for imposing boundary conditions and building computational domains. In this manuscript, a novel, low-cost, rapid, and accurate method is developed to measure submerged topography, as an alternative to conventional approaches that require significant economic investments and human power. The method integrates two types of Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS) sampling techniques. The first couples a small UAS (sUAS) to an echosounder attached to a miniaturized boat for surveying submerged topography in deeper water within the range of accuracy. The second uses Structure from Motion (SfM) photogrammetry to cover shallower water areas no detected by the echosounder where the bed is visible from the sUAS. The refraction of light passing through air\u2013water interface is considered for improving the bathymetric results. A zonal adaptive sampling algorithm is developed and applied to the echosounder data to densify measurements where the standard deviation of clustered points is high. This method is tested at a small reservoir in the U.S. southern plains. Ground Control Points (GCPs) and checkpoints surveyed with a total station are used for properly georeferencing of the SfM photogrammetry and assessment of the UAS imagery accuracy. An independent validation procedure providing a number of skill and error metrics is conducted using ground-truth data collected with a leveling rod at co-located reservoir points. Assessment of the results shows a strong correlation between the echosounder, SfM measurements and the field observations. The final product is a hybrid bathymetric survey resulting from the merging of SfM photogrammetry and echosoundings within an adaptive sampling framework.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10091362","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,28]],"date-time":"2018-08-28T12:19:06Z","timestamp":1535458746000},"page":"1362","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":51,"title":["Merging Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS) Imagery and Echo Soundings with an Adaptive Sampling Technique for Bathymetric Surveys"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5047-5384","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Laura V.","family":"Alvarez","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Autonomous Sensing and Sampling, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK 73072, USA"},{"name":"School of Meteorology, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK 73072, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0408-6588","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hernan A.","family":"Moreno","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geography and Environmental Sustainability, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK 73019, USA"},{"name":"School of Civil Engineering and Environmental Science, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK 73019, USA"}]},{"given":"Antonio R.","family":"Segales","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Autonomous Sensing and Sampling, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK 73072, USA"},{"name":"School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK 73019, USA"}]},{"given":"Tri G.","family":"Pham","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Civil Engineering and Environmental Science, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK 73019, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0444-2300","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elizabeth A.","family":"Pillar-Little","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Autonomous Sensing and Sampling, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK 73072, USA"},{"name":"School of Meteorology, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK 73072, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8049-2644","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Phillip B.","family":"Chilson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Autonomous Sensing and Sampling, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK 73072, USA"},{"name":"School of Meteorology, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK 73072, USA"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.2262","article-title":"Remote measurement of river morphology via fusion of LiDAR topography and spectrally based bathymetry: Measuring river morphology with LiDAR and spectral bathymetry","volume":"37","author":"Legleiter","year":"2012","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2011.03.012","article-title":"UAV-based remote sensing of the Super-Sauze landslide: Evaluation and results","volume":"128","author":"Niethammer","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1016\/j.earscirev.2015.05.012","article-title":"Analyzing high resolution topography for advancing the understanding of mass and energy transfer through landscapes: A review","volume":"148","author":"Passalacqua","year":"2015","journal-title":"Earth Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"438","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2011.11.008","article-title":"Use of a total station to monitor post-failure sediment yields in landslide sites of the Shihmen reservoir watershed, Taiwan","volume":"139\u2013140","author":"Tsai","year":"2012","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.1886","article-title":"Accounting for uncertainty in DEMs from repeat topographic surveys: Improved sediment budgets","volume":"35","author":"Wheaton","year":"2010","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Alvarez, L.V. (2015). Turbulence, Sediment Transport, Erosion, and Sandbar Beach Failure Processes in Grand Canyon. [Ph.D. Thesis, Arizona State University]."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1002\/2016JF003895","article-title":"A detached eddy simulation model for the study of lateral separation zones along a large canyon-bound river","volume":"122","author":"Alvarez","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1241","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-20-1241-2016","article-title":"Modeling the distributed effects of forest thinning on the long-term water balance and streamflow extremes for a semi-arid basin in the southwestern US","volume":"20","author":"Moreno","year":"2016","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"688","DOI":"10.1002\/hyp.9600","article-title":"Addressing uncertainty in reflectivity-rainfall relations in mountain watersheds during summer convection","volume":"28","author":"Moreno","year":"2014","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2012.03.019","article-title":"Utility of Quantitative Precipitation Estimates for high resolution hydrologic forecasts in mountain watersheds of the Colorado Front Range","volume":"438\u2013439","author":"Moreno","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"1075","article-title":"Limits to Flood Forecasting in the Colorado Front Range for Two Summer Convection Periods Using Radar Nowcasting and a Distributed Hydrologic Model","volume":"14","author":"Moreno","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"839","DOI":"10.1002\/rra.2576","article-title":"Erosion of river sandbars by diurnal stage fluctuations in the Colorado River in the Marble and Grand Canyons: Full-scaled laboratory experiments","volume":"29","author":"Alvarez","year":"2013","journal-title":"River Res. Appl."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1099-1646(199805\/06)14:3<267::AID-RRR501>3.0.CO;2-5","article-title":"Habitat relationships of subadult humpback chub in the Colorado River through Grand Canyon: Spatial variability and implications of flow regulation","volume":"14","author":"Converse","year":"1998","journal-title":"Regul. River"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1080\/02755947.2013.847880","article-title":"Habitat Selection and Movement of Adult Humpback Chub in the Colorado River in Grand Canyon, Arizona, during an Experimental Steady Flow Release","volume":"34","author":"Gerig","year":"2014","journal-title":"N. J. Fish. Manag."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1002\/rra.749","article-title":"Modelling effects of discharge on habitat quality and dispersal of juvenile humpback chub (Gila cypha) in the Colorado River, Grand Canyon","volume":"20","author":"Korman","year":"2004","journal-title":"River Res. Appl."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2007.10.022","article-title":"A predictive typology for characterising hydromorphology","volume":"100","author":"Orr","year":"2008","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1080\/01490410701295962","article-title":"Multiscale Terrain Analysis of Multibeam Bathymetry Data for Habitat Mapping on the Continental Slope","volume":"30","author":"Wilson","year":"2007","journal-title":"Mar. Geodesy"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/S0309-1708(99)00007-X","article-title":"Digital terrain modeling of small stream channels with a total-station theodolite","volume":"23","author":"Keim","year":"1999","journal-title":"Adv. Water Resour."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2837","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160110108364","article-title":"Cost-effective non-metric close-range digital photogrammetry and its application to a study of coarse gravel river beds","volume":"24","author":"Carbonneau","year":"2003","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"745","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1477-9730.1985.tb01326.x","article-title":"Errors in depth determination caused by waves in through-water photogrammetry","volume":"11","author":"Fryer","year":"1985","journal-title":"Photogramm. Rec."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"937","DOI":"10.1111\/0031-868X.00159","article-title":"The measurement of river channel morphology using digital photogrammetry","volume":"16","author":"Lane","year":"2000","journal-title":"Photogramm. Rec."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"795","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160110113070","article-title":"Remote survey of large-scale braided, gravel-bed rivers using digital photogrammetry and image analysis","volume":"24","author":"Westaway","year":"2003","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"1271","article-title":"Remote sensing of clear-water, shallow, gravel-bed rivers using digital photogrammetry","volume":"67","author":"Westaway","year":"2001","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bailly, J.S., Kinzel, P.J., Allouis, T., Feurer, D., and Le Coarer, Y. (2012). Airborne LiDAR Methods Applied to Riverine Environments. Fluvial Remote Sensing for Science and Management, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781119940791.ch7"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.2112\/SI53-001.1","article-title":"The Emerging Role of Lidar Remote Sensing in Coastal Research and Resource Management","volume":"10053","author":"Brock","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Coast. Res."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1111\/jawr.12008","article-title":"Mapping river bathymetry with a small footprint green LiDAR: Applications and challenges","volume":"49","author":"Kinzel","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Am. Water Resour. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"773","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.1575","article-title":"Assessing the ability of airborne LiDAR to map river bathymetry","volume":"33","author":"Hilldale","year":"2008","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1065","DOI":"10.3390\/rs1041065","article-title":"Remote Sensing of Channels and Riparian Zones with a Narrow-Beam Aquatic-Terrestrial LIDAR","volume":"1","author":"McKean","year":"2009","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.3366","article-title":"Topographic structure from motion: A new development in photogrammetric measurement","volume":"38","author":"Fonstad","year":"2013","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1705","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.1595","article-title":"Very high spatial resolution imagery for channel bathymetry and topography from an unmanned mapping controlled platform","volume":"32","author":"Lejot","year":"2007","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.1637","article-title":"Optical remote mapping of rivers at sub-meter resolutions and watershed extents","volume":"33","author":"Marcus","year":"2008","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2015.05.011","article-title":"Reproducibility of UAV-based earth topography reconstructions based on Structure-from-Motion algorithms","volume":"260","author":"Clapuyt","year":"2016","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4915","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160903023025","article-title":"Potential and constraints of Unmanned Aerial Vehicle technology for the characterization of Mediterranean riparian forest","volume":"30","author":"Dunford","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1573","DOI":"10.3390\/rs4061573","article-title":"Assessing the Accuracy of Georeferenced Point Clouds Produced via Multi-View Stereopsis from Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) Imagery","volume":"4","author":"Harwin","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1177\/0309133315615805","article-title":"Structure from motion photogrammetry in physical geography","volume":"40","author":"Smith","year":"2016","journal-title":"Prog. Phys. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1392","DOI":"10.3390\/rs4051392","article-title":"An Automated Technique for Generating Georectified Mosaics from Ultra-High Resolution Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) Imagery, Based on Structure from Motion (SfM) Point Clouds","volume":"4","author":"Turner","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.3613","article-title":"Quantifying submerged fluvial topography using hyperspatial resolution UAS imagery and structure from motion photogrammetry: Submerged fluvial topography from UAS imagery and SfM","volume":"40","author":"Woodget","year":"2015","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2013.03.023","article-title":"Geomorphological mapping with a small unmanned aircraft system (sUAS): Feature detection and accuracy assessment of a photogrammetrically-derived digital terrain model","volume":"194","author":"Hugenholtz","year":"2013","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"514","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2010.08.002","article-title":"A low-cost multi-sensoral mobile mapping system and its feasibility for tree measurements","volume":"65","author":"Jaakkola","year":"2010","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2014.03.008","article-title":"High-resolution topography for understanding Earth surface processes: Opportunities and challenges","volume":"216","author":"Tarolli","year":"2014","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1671","DOI":"10.3390\/rs4061671","article-title":"Unmanned Aircraft Systems in Remote Sensing and Scientific Research: Classification and Considerations of Use","volume":"4","author":"Watts","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2014.01.006","article-title":"Modeling the topography of shallow braided rivers using Structure-from-Motion photogrammetry","volume":"213","author":"Javernick","year":"2014","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.3390\/s120100453","article-title":"Point Cloud Generation from Aerial Image Data Acquired by a Quadrocopter Type Micro Unmanned Aerial Vehicle and a Digital Still Camera","volume":"12","author":"Rosnell","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2060","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jas.2012.02.022","article-title":"Mapping by matching: A computer vision-based approach to fast and accurate georeferencing of archaeological aerial photographs","volume":"39","author":"Verhoeven","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Archaeol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"985","DOI":"10.1002\/rra.1198","article-title":"Accuracy assessment of aerial photographs acquired using lighter-than-air blimps: Low-cost tools for mapping river corridors","volume":"25","author":"Vericat","year":"2009","journal-title":"River Res. Appl."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2031","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.1888","article-title":"Quantifying the temporal dynamics of wood in large rivers: Field trials of wood surveying, dating, tracking, and monitoring techniques","volume":"34","author":"MacVicar","year":"2009","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.1702","article-title":"High spatial resolution data acquisition for the geosciences: Kite aerial photography","volume":"34","author":"Smith","year":"2009","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.2747\/1548-1603.48.1.50","article-title":"Analysis of Post-flood Recruitment Patterns in Braided-Channel Rivers at Multiple Scales Based on an Image Series Collected by Unmanned Aerial Vehicles, Ultra-light Aerial Vehicles, and Satellites","volume":"48","author":"Hervouet","year":"2011","journal-title":"GISci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.4060","article-title":"Bathymetric Structure-from-Motion: Extracting shallow stream bathymetry from multi-view stereo photogrammetry","volume":"42","author":"Dietrich","year":"2017","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Cartwright, D.S., and Clarke, J.H. (2002, January 28\u201331). Multibeam surveys of the frazer river delta, coping with an extreme refraction environment. Proceedings of the 2002 Canadian Hydrographic Conference, Toronto, ON, Canada."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00313877","article-title":"Shallow-water imaging multibeam sonars: a new tool for investigating seafloor processes in the coastal zone and on the continental shelf","volume":"18","author":"Clarke","year":"1996","journal-title":"Mar. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-1694(01)00558-3","article-title":"Bedform movement recorded by sequential single-beam surveys in tidal rivers","volume":"258","author":"Dinehart","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1139\/f98-138","article-title":"From two dimensions to three: The use of multibeam sonar for a new approach in fisheries acoustics","volume":"56","author":"Gerlotto","year":"1999","journal-title":"Can. J. Fish. Aquat."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1576","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)HY.1943-7900.0000464","article-title":"Flow Field and Morphology Mapping Using ADCP and Multibeam Techniques: Survey in the Po River","volume":"137","author":"Guerrero","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Hydraul. Res."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4132","DOI":"10.1002\/2015WR018354","article-title":"Acoustic mapping velocimetry","volume":"52","author":"Muste","year":"2016","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Parsons, D.R., Best, J.L., Orfeo, O., Hardy, R.J., Kostaschuk, R., and Lane, S.N. (2005). Morphology and flow fields of three-dimensional dunes, Rio Paran\u00e1, Argentina: Results from simultaneous multibeam echo sounding and acoustic Doppler current profiling: Three dimensional alluvial dunes, Rio Parana. J. Geophys. Res, 110.","DOI":"10.1029\/2004JF000231"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1016\/S0025-3227(02)00686-2","article-title":"Seabed morphology and hydrocarbon seepage in the Gulf of C\u00e1diz mud volcano area: Acoustic imagery, multibeam and ultra-high resolution seismic data","volume":"195","author":"Somoza","year":"2003","journal-title":"Mar. Geol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1007\/s11001-007-9019-4","article-title":"Remote estimation of surficial seafloor properties through the application Angular Range Analysis to multibeam sonar data","volume":"28","author":"Fonseca","year":"2007","journal-title":"Mar. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dinehart, R.L., and Burau, J.R. (2005). Averaged indicators of secondary flow in repeated acoustic Doppler current profiler crossings of bends: Averaged indicators of secondary flow. Water Resour. Res., 41.","DOI":"10.1029\/2005WR004050"},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"Muste, M., Baranya, S., Tsubaki, R., Kim, D., Ho, H.C., Tsai, H.W., and Law, D. (July, January 28). Acoustic Mapping Velocimetry proof-of-concept experiment. Proceedings of the 36th IAHR World Congress, The Hague, The Netherlands."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"534","DOI":"10.1038\/nature13779","article-title":"Flow in bedrock canyons","volume":"513","author":"Venditti","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"Viney, I.T., and Kirk, G.R. (2000). Remote Control and Viewing for A Total Station. (6,034.722), Google Patents."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2012.08.026","article-title":"Long-term monitoring and data analysis of the Tamar Bridge","volume":"35","author":"Cross","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal. Process."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1515\/jag-2015-0005","article-title":"Monitoring of civil engineering structures using a state-of-the-art image assisted total station","volume":"9","author":"Ehrhart","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Appl. Geodesy"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S23","DOI":"10.3846\/13923730.2013.795187","article-title":"Combined 3D building surveying techniques\u2014Terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) and total station surveying for BIM data management purposes","volume":"19","author":"Mill","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Civ. Eng. Manag."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)BE.1943-5592.0000334","article-title":"Measuring Deflections of a Short-Span Railway Bridge Using a Robotic Total Station","volume":"18","author":"Psimoulis","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Bridge Eng."},{"key":"ref_67","first-page":"1","article-title":"Mapping mining-induced subsidence from space in a hard rock mine: Example of SAR interferometry application at Kiruna mine","volume":"97","author":"Henry","year":"2004","journal-title":"CIM Bull."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2008.12.021","article-title":"Two and three-dimensional quantification of lead contamination in alluvial soils of a historic mining area using field portable X-ray fluorescence (FPXRF) analysis","volume":"110","author":"Raab","year":"2009","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_69","first-page":"653","article-title":"Temporal changes in rate of recession: Evidences from Satopanth and Bhagirath Kharak glaciers, Uttarakhand, using Total Station Survey","volume":"94","author":"Nainwal","year":"2008","journal-title":"Curr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"905","DOI":"10.1002\/rra.2687","article-title":"Evaluating shallow-water bathymetry from through-water terrestrial laser scanning under a range of hydraulic and physical water quality conditions","volume":"30","author":"Smith","year":"2014","journal-title":"River Res. Appl."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2003.11.003","article-title":"Using lidar and effective LAI data to evaluate IKONOS and Landsat 7 ETM+ vegetation cover estimates in a ponderosa pine forest","volume":"91","author":"Chen","year":"2004","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_72","first-page":"63","article-title":"Determination of wetland vegetation height with LIDAR","volume":"28","author":"Dewitt","year":"2004","journal-title":"Turk. J. Agric. For."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.37.000431","article-title":"Investigation of laser-induced fluorescence of several natural leaves for application to lidar vegetation monitoring","volume":"37","author":"Saito","year":"1998","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(02)00056-1","article-title":"Integration of lidar and Landsat ETM+ data for estimating and mapping forest canopy height","volume":"82","author":"Hudak","year":"2002","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.5589\/m03-022","article-title":"Accuracy of a high-resolution lidar terrain model under a conifer forest canopy","volume":"29","author":"Reutebuch","year":"2003","journal-title":"Can. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Simard, M., Pinto, N., Fisher, J.B., and Baccini, A. (2011). Mapping forest canopy height globally with spaceborne lidar. J. Geophys. Res., 116.","DOI":"10.1029\/2011JG001708"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2004.10.013","article-title":"Estimating forest canopy fuel parameters using LIDAR data","volume":"94","author":"Andersen","year":"2005","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2004.02.008","article-title":"Small-footprint lidar estimation of sub-canopy elevation and tree height in a tropical rain forest landscape","volume":"91","author":"Clark","year":"2004","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1007\/s10310-007-0041-9","article-title":"Detection of individual trees and estimation of tree height using LiDAR data","volume":"12","author":"Kwak","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. For. Res."},{"key":"ref_80","first-page":"W8","article-title":"Airborne LiDAR feature selection for urban classification using random forests","volume":"38","author":"Chehata","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2010.08.007","article-title":"Relevance of airborne lidar and multispectral image data for urban scene classification using Random Forests","volume":"66","author":"Guo","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S71","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2011.09.008","article-title":"Relevance assessment of full-waveform lidar data for urban area classification","volume":"66","author":"Mallet","year":"2011","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2013.10.010","article-title":"A methodological intercomparison of topographic survey techniques for characterizing wadeable streams and rivers","volume":"206","author":"Bangen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.1177\/0309133308096030","article-title":"Very-high-resolution mapping of river-immersed topography by remote sensing","volume":"32","author":"Feurer","year":"2008","journal-title":"Prog. Phys. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_85","unstructured":"Kinzel, P.J. (2009). Advanced tools for river science: EAARL and MD_SWMS. PNMAP Special Publication: Remote Sensing Applications for Aquatic Resources Monitoring. Pacific Northwest Aquatic Monitoring Partnership, PNMAP."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brock, J.C., Wright, C.W., Patterson, M., Nayegandhi, A., Patterson, J., Harris, M.S., and Mosher, L. (2006). EAARL Submarine Topography: Biscayne National Park, Technical Report.","DOI":"10.3133\/ofr20061118"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-2716(99)00003-9","article-title":"Scanning laser mapping of the coastal zone: The SHOALS system","volume":"54","author":"Irish","year":"1999","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bonisteel, J.M., Nayegandhi, A., Wright, C.W., Brock, J.C., and Nagle, D. (2009). Experimental Advanced Airborne Research LiDAR (EAARL) Data Processing Manual, Technical Report.","DOI":"10.3133\/ofr20091078"},{"key":"ref_89","unstructured":"Nayegandhi, A., Brock, J.C., and Wright, C.W. (2005, January 7\u201311). Classifying vegetation using NASA\u2019s Experimental Advanced Airborne Research Lidar (EAARL) at Assateague Island National Seashore. Proceedings of the 2005 ASPRS Annual Conference, Baltimore, MA, USA."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Skinner, K.D. (2011). Evaluation of LiDAR-Acquired Bathymetric and Topographic Data Accuracy in Various Hydrogeomorphic Settings in the Deadwood and South Fork Boise Rivers, West-Central Idaho, 2007, Technical Report.","DOI":"10.3133\/sir20115051"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wright, C.W., Troche, R.J., Kranenburg, C.J., Klipp, E.S., Fredericks, X., and Nagle, D.B. (2014). EAARL-B Submerged Topography: Barnegat Bay, New Jersey, Post-Hurricane Sandy, 2012\u20132013, Technical Report.","DOI":"10.3133\/ds887"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wright, C.W., Fredericks, X., Troche, R.J., Klipp, E.S., Kranenburg, C.J., and Nagle, D.B. (2014). EAARL-B Coastal Topography: Eastern New Jersey, Hurricane Sandy, 2012: First Surface.","DOI":"10.3133\/ds767"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.3354\/meps219121","article-title":"Benthic habitat mapping on the Scotian Shelf based on multibeam bathymetry, surficial geology and sea floor photographs","volume":"219","author":"Kostylev","year":"2001","journal-title":"Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kaplinski, M., Hazel, J.E., Grams, P.E., Kohl, K., Buscombe, D.D., and Tusso, R.B. (2017). Channel Mapping River Miles 29\u201362 of the Colorado River in Grand Canyon National Park, Arizona, May 2009, Technical Report No. 2017-1030.","DOI":"10.3133\/ofr20171030"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1294","DOI":"10.1577\/M07-019.1","article-title":"Generating River Bottom Profiles with a Dual-Frequency Identification Sonar (DIDSON)","volume":"27","author":"Maxwell","year":"2007","journal-title":"N. J. Fish. Manag."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-3091.2000.00305.x","article-title":"Morphological evolution and dynamics of a large, sand braid-bar, Jamuna River, Bangladesh","volume":"47","author":"Ashworth","year":"2000","journal-title":"Sedimentology"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"750","DOI":"10.2110\/jsr.68.750","article-title":"Dynamics of bedforms in the lower Mississippi River","volume":"68","author":"Harbor","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Sediment. Res."},{"key":"ref_98","first-page":"45","article-title":"Morphology and recent history of the lower Spey","volume":"93","author":"Lewin","year":"1977","journal-title":"Scott. Geogr. Mag."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-1694(75)90037-2","article-title":"Welsh floodplain studies: The nature of floodplain geometry","volume":"25","author":"Lewin","year":"1975","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"799","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2427.2002.00909.x","article-title":"Remote sensing of riverine landscapes","volume":"47","author":"Mertes","year":"2002","journal-title":"Freshwater Biol."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2383","DOI":"10.1029\/98WR01550","article-title":"Response of the Ha! Ha! River to the flood of July 1996 in the Saguenay region of Quebec: Large-scale avulsion in a glaciated valley","volume":"34","author":"Lapointe","year":"1998","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1016\/S0341-8162(97)00020-9","article-title":"The reconstruction of bed material yield and supply histories in gravel-bed streams","volume":"30","author":"Lane","year":"1997","journal-title":"Catena"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"761","DOI":"10.1029\/94WR01726","article-title":"Morphological Estimation of the Time-Integrated Bed Load Transport Rate","volume":"31","author":"Lane","year":"1995","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"517","DOI":"10.1029\/97WR02886","article-title":"On gravel-bed roughness characterization","volume":"34","author":"Nikora","year":"1998","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.5194\/isprsarchives-XL-1-W2-45-2013","article-title":"Very high resolution crop surface models (CSMs) from UAV-based stereo images for rice growth monitoring in Northeast China","volume":"40","author":"Bendig","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1157","DOI":"10.3390\/rs2041157","article-title":"Remote Sensing of Vegetation Structure Using Computer Vision","volume":"2","author":"Dandois","year":"2010","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_107","first-page":"F03017","article-title":"Straightforward reconstruction of 3D surfaces and topography with a camera: Accuracy and geoscience application","volume":"117","author":"James","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6880","DOI":"10.3390\/rs5126880","article-title":"Using Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) for High-Resolution Reconstruction of Topography: The Structure from Motion Approach on Coastal Environments","volume":"5","author":"Mancini","year":"2013","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2012.08.021","article-title":"Structure-from-Motion\u2019 photogrammetry: A low-cost, effective tool for geoscience applications","volume":"179","author":"Westoby","year":"2012","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_110","unstructured":"Kaufman, L., and Rousseeuw, P.J. (2009). Finding Groups in Data: An Introduction to Cluster Analysis, John Wiley & Sons."},{"key":"ref_111","unstructured":"Bishop, C. (2006). Pattern Recognition and Machine Learning (Information Science and Statistics), Springer. Chapter 3."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gupta, H.V., and Kling, H. (2011). On typical range, sensitivity, and normalization of Mean Squared Error and Nash-Sutcliffe Efficiency type metrics: Technical Note. Water Resour. Res., 47.","DOI":"10.1029\/2011WR010962"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1023\/B:VISI.0000029664.99615.94","article-title":"Distinctive Image Features from Scale-Invariant Keypoints","volume":"60","author":"Lowe","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Comput. Vis."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Snavely, N., Seitz, S.M., and Szeliski, R. (2008, January 23\u201328). Skeletal graphs for efficient structure from motion. Proceedings of the 2008 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, Anchorage, AK, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR.2008.4587678"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"835","DOI":"10.1145\/1141911.1141964","article-title":"Photo tourism: Exploring photo collections in 3D","volume":"Volume 25","author":"Snavely","year":"2006","journal-title":"ACM Transactions on Graphics (TOG)"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Szeliski, R. (2010). Computer Vision: Algorithms and Applications, Springer Science & Business Media.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-84882-935-0"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Triggs, B., McLauchlan, P.F., Hartley, R.I., and Fitzgibbon, A.W. (1999). Bundle adjustment\u2014A modern synthesis. International Workshop on Vision Algorithms, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/3-540-44480-7_21"},{"key":"ref_118","unstructured":"Hecht, E. (2016). Optics, Pearson Education."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/10\/9\/1362\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T15:21:31Z","timestamp":1760196091000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/10\/9\/1362"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,28]]},"references-count":118,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,9]]}},"alternative-id":["rs10091362"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs10091362","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,28]]}}}