{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,10]],"date-time":"2026-01-10T10:55:07Z","timestamp":1768042507685,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":76,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,9,3]],"date-time":"2018-09-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1535932800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>A significant problem in understanding the archaeology of standing buildings relates to the proscription to uncover features and structures within plastered and rendered walls due to the susceptibility and historic importance of such structures. Infrared thermography offers a method of visualization that is nondestructive and capable of revealing various types of archaeological anomaly that has been demonstrated on a small scale in the past. A passive infrared thermal camera is used to examine several historic buildings that are known or suspected to contain hidden archaeological information; the technique is also presented on complex, exposed historic building fabric. The results confirm that it is possible to detect various types of man-made anomaly and to differentiate building materials. In consequence, the use of passive thermal infrared imaging is shown to be a valuable tool in the examination and recording of historic buildings and structures.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10091401","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,9,3]],"date-time":"2018-09-03T10:50:51Z","timestamp":1535971851000},"page":"1401","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":54,"title":["Thermal Imaging for the Archaeological Investigation of Historic Buildings"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Christopher","family":"Brooke","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of History, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,9,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1002\/1099-0763(199412)1:2<105::AID-ARP6140010204>3.0.CO;2-F","article-title":"Ground-Based Remote Sensing of Buildings and Archaeological Sites: Ten Years Research to Operation","volume":"1","author":"Brooke","year":"1994","journal-title":"Archaeol. Prospect."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Brooke, C.J. (1996, January 11\u201314). The Application of High Resolution Photographic Remote Sensing and Digital Image Processing in the Archaeological Examination of Historic Buildings. RSS 96: Remote Sensing Science and Industry. Proceedings of the 22nd Annual Conference of the Remote Sensing Society, Durham, UK."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1007\/s00339-011-6689-1","article-title":"Advances in Multispectral and Hyperspectral Imaging for Archaeology and Art Conservation","volume":"106","author":"Liang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cosentino, A. (2014). Identification of pigments by multispectral imaging; a flowchart method. Herit. Sci., 2.","DOI":"10.1186\/2050-7445-2-8"},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"165","article-title":"Thermografische Undersuchung verputzter Fachwerkbauten","volume":"35","author":"Cramer","year":"1977","journal-title":"Dtsch. Kunst Denkmalpfl."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"44","article-title":"Thermografie in der Bauforschung","volume":"2","author":"Cramer","year":"1981","journal-title":"Archaol. Naturwissenschaft"},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"65","article-title":"Application of Infrared Thermography to Historic Building Investigation","volume":"15","author":"Spodek","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Archit. Conserv."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2013.03.066","article-title":"Effects of individual climatic parameters on the infrared thermography of buildings","volume":"110","author":"Lehmann","year":"2013","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1016\/j.infrared.2015.09.020","article-title":"High-resolution thermal imaging methodology for non-destructive evaluation of historic structures","volume":"73","author":"Hess","year":"2015","journal-title":"Infrared Phys. Technol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moropoulou, A., Avdelidis, N., Karoglou, M., Delegou, E., Alexakis, E., and Keramidas, V. (2018). Multispectral Applications of Infrared Thermography in the Diagnosis and Protection of Built Cultural Heritage. Appl. Sci., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/app8020284"},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"McAvoy, F., and Demaus, R. (1998). Infra-Red Thermography in Building Survey and Secording: An Application at Prior\u2019s Hall, Widdington, Essex, English Heritage."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4358","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2011.05.014","article-title":"Application of infrared thermography for the determination of the overall heat transfer coefficient (U-Value) in building envelopes","volume":"88","author":"Fokaides","year":"2011","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fuchs, H.U. (2010). The Dynamics of Heat: A Unified Approach to Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer, Springer. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4419-7604-8"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meola, C. (2012). Infrared Thermography Recent Advances and Future Trends; Bentham Science, Bentham Science.","DOI":"10.2174\/97816080514341120101"},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Sekerka, R. (2015). Thermal Physics: Thermodynamics and Statistical Mechanics for Scientists and Engineers, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kaka\u00e7, S., Yener, T., and Naveira-Cotta, C.P. (2018). Heat Conduction, Taylor & Francis. [5th ed.].","DOI":"10.1201\/b22157"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"663","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-7788(02)00210-4","article-title":"Emissivity considerations in building thermography","volume":"35","author":"Avdelidisa","year":"2003","journal-title":"Energy Build."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tang, H.J., and Li, Z.L. (2014). Quantitative Remote Sensing in Thermal Infrared: Theory and Applications, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-42027-6"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Karwa, R. (2017). Heat and Mass Transfer, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-10-1557-1"},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Bergman, T.L., Lavine, A.S., Incropera, F.P., and Dewitt, D.P. (2017). Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, Wiley. [8th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2016.02.012","article-title":"Analysis of building facade defects using infrared thermography: Laboratory studies","volume":"6","author":"Bauer","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maldague, P.X. (2001). Theory and Practice of Infrared Technology for Non-destructive Evaluation, Wiley.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-008043020-1\/50040-5"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ndteint.2013.09.002","article-title":"Noise-limited thermal\/infrared non-destructive testing","volume":"61","author":"Vavilov","year":"2014","journal-title":"NDT&E Int."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jacobs, P.A. (2006). Thermal Infrared Characterization of Ground Targets and Backgrounds, SPIE. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1117\/3.651915"},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"\u00c7engel, Y.A., and Ghajar, A.J. (2015). Heat and Mass Transfer Fundamentals and Applications, McGraw Hill. [5th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Casas-V\u00e1zquez, J., Jou, D., and Rubi, J.M. (1985, January 16\u201320). Recent Developments in Nonequilibrium Thermodynamics: Fluids and Related Topics. Proceedings of the Meeting Held at Bellaterra School of Thermodynamics, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Sant Feliu De Gu\u00edxols, Catalonia, Spain.","DOI":"10.1007\/3-540-16489-8"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baehr, H.D., and Stephan, K. (2011). Heat and Mass Transfer, Springer. [3rd ed.].","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-20021-2"},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"(2018, July 07). Thermografie. Available online: http:\/\/joe-c.de\/pages\/projekte\/thermografie.php."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Burger, W., and Burge, M.J. (2016). Digital Image Processing: An Algorithmic Introduction Using Java, Springer. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4471-6684-9"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vaseghi, S.V. (2000). Advanced Digital Signal Processing and Noise Reduction, Wiley. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1002\/0470841621"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Christensen, O. (2010). Functions, Spaces and Expansions Mathematical Tools in Physics and Engineering, Birkh\u00e4user.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-0-8176-4980-7"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Radke, R.J. (2013). Computer Vision for Visual Effects, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9781139019682"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"482","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1475-4754.2009.00485.x","article-title":"Investigating material decay of historic buildings using Visual Analytics with multi-temporal infrared thermographic data","volume":"52","author":"Danese","year":"2010","journal-title":"Archaeometry"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Danese, M., Sileo, M., and Masini, N. (2018). Geophysical Methods and Spatial Information for the Analysis of Decaying Frescoes. Surv. Geophys., 1\u201318.","DOI":"10.1007\/s10712-018-9484-0"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tan, D. (2015, January 12\u201313). Image Enhancement Based on Adaptive Median Filter and Wallis Filter. Proceedings of the 4th National Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (NCEECE 2015), Xi\u2019an, China.","DOI":"10.2991\/nceece-15.2016.142"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Beyerer, J., Le\u00f3n, F.P., and Frese, C. (2016). Machine Vision Automated Visual Inspection: Theory, Practice and Applications, Springer-Verlag.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-47794-6"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lu, W., Yue, X., Zhao, Y., and Han, C. (2017, January 18\u201322). A SAR Image Registration Method Based on Sift Algorithm. The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, Wuhan, China.","DOI":"10.5194\/isprs-archives-XLII-2-W7-623-2017"},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Davies, E.R. (2012). Computer and Machine Vision: Theory, Algorithms, Practicalities, Academic Press. [4th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Krig, S. (2018, September 03). Apress. Available online: https:\/\/www.apress.com\/la\/book\/9781430259299."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, X., Yin, C., and Dadras, S. (2018). Cheng, Y.H.; Bai, L.B Adaptive rapid defect identification in ECPT based on K-means and automatic segmentation algorithm. J. Ambient Intell. Hum. Comput., 1\u201318.","DOI":"10.1007\/s12652-017-0671-5"},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"MacQueen, J. (1967). Some Methods for classification and Analysis of Multivariate Observations. The 5th Berkeley Symposium on Mathematical Statistics and Probability, University of California Press."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Hartigan, J.A. (1975). Clustering Algorithms, John Wiley."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kramer, O. (2013). Dimensionality Reduction with Unsupervised Nearest Neighbors, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-38652-7"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1002\/bapi.200910006","article-title":"Thermisches Komfortmodell f\u00fcr inhomogene Umgebungsbedingungen","volume":"31","author":"Streblow","year":"2009","journal-title":"Bauphysik"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fritzson, P. (2014). Principles of Object-Orientated Modeling and Simulation with Modelica 3.3, Wiley. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118989166"},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"(2018, July 09). The Southwell and Nottingham Church History Project. Available online: http:\/\/southwellchurches.nottingham.ac.uk\/_main\/hindex.php."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"(2018, July 09). Kinoulton St Luke: Archaeology. Available online: http:\/\/southwellchurches.history.nottingham.ac.uk\/kinoulton\/harchlgy.php."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"(2018, July 09). Gringley-on-the-Hill St Peter and St Paul: Archaeology. Available online: http:\/\/southwellchurches.nottingham.ac.uk\/gringley-on-the-hill\/harchlgy.php."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"(2018, July 17). Holme St Giles: Archaeology. Available online: http:\/\/southwellchurches.nottingham.ac.uk\/holme\/harchlgy.php."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huitson, T. (2014). Stairway to Heaven the Functions of Medieval Upper Spaces, Oxbow.","DOI":"10.2307\/j.ctvh1dp8k"},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Holman, J.P. (2010). Heat Transfer, McGraw-Hill. [10th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1179\/030554789786051372","article-title":"Tree Ring Dates, List 29 (9a-c)","volume":"20","author":"Howard","year":"1989","journal-title":"Vernac. Archit."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Hurford, M., and King, C. (2014). The Pre-1750 Houses of Southwell, Southwell Archaeology\/University of Nottingham."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"(2018, July 21). Kelham St Wilfrid. Available online: http:\/\/southwellchurches.nottingham.ac.uk\/kelham\/hintro.php."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Minkina, W., and Dudzik, S. (2009). Infrared Thermography Errors and Uncertainties, Wiley.","DOI":"10.1002\/9780470682234"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2016.01.022","article-title":"Automated lithological mapping using airborne hyperspectral thermal infrared data: A case study from Anchorage Island, Antarctica","volume":"176","author":"Black","year":"2016","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Raneri, S. (2015). Complex Pore Geometries in Natural Building Stones: An Experimental and Theoretical Approach for the Modeling of Porosity Changes in Natural, Degraded and Treated Calcarenites. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Catania]."},{"key":"ref_58","first-page":"21","article-title":"Paper Surface Characterisation by Laser Profilometry and Image Analysis","volume":"96","author":"Chinga","year":"2003","journal-title":"Microsc. Anal."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"254","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2818.2007.01809.x","article-title":"Quantification of the 3D microstructure of SC surfaces","volume":"227","author":"Chinga","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Microsc."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wear.2017.09.003","article-title":"Effect of wear from cleaning operations on sintered ceramic surfaces: Correlation of surface properties data with touch perception and digital image processing","volume":"390","author":"Piselli","year":"2017","journal-title":"Wear"},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"Hairer, E., N\u00f8rsett, S.P., and Wanner, G. (2008). Solving Ordinary Differential Equations I Nonstiff Problems, Springer. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"404","DOI":"10.1016\/j.icarus.2012.04.020","article-title":"A laboratory study of the effects of roughness on the thermal infrared spectra of rock surfaces","volume":"220","author":"Osterloo","year":"2012","journal-title":"Icarus"},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"Wood, J. (1994). Buildings Archaeology Applications in Practice, Oxbow."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1222","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2013.03.044","article-title":"Non-destructive techniques as a tool for the protection of built cultural heritage","volume":"48","author":"Moropoulou","year":"2013","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"Gaffney, C., and Gater, J. (2003). Revealing the Buried Past Geophysics for Archaeologists, Tempus."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Everett, M.E. (2013). Near-Surface Applied Geophysics, CUP.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9781139088435"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1002\/arp.1576","article-title":"Large-scale geophysical archaeological prospection pilot study at Viking Age and medieval sites in West Jutland, Denmark","volume":"24","author":"Filzwieser","year":"2017","journal-title":"Archaeol. Prospect."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kaviany, M. (2011). Essentials of Heat Transfer Principals, Materials, and Applications, CUP.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511998195"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lappa, M. (2010). Thermal Convection: Patterns, Evolution and Stability, Wiley.","DOI":"10.1002\/9780470749982"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pavl\u00edkov\u00e1, M., Pernicov\u00e1, R., and Pavl\u00edk, Z. (2016). Thermophysical Properties of Hydrophobised Lime Plaster\u2014Experimental Analysis of Moisture Effect. AIP Conference Proceeding, AIP.","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4955253"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1016\/j.infrared.2004.03.020","article-title":"Moisture detection in wood and plaster by IR thermography","volume":"46","author":"Ludwig","year":"2004","journal-title":"Infrared Phys. Technol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Delgado, J. (2016). Recent Developments in Building Diagnosis Techniques, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-10-0466-7"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Eppelbaum, L., Kutasov, I., and Pilchin, A. (2014). Applied Geothermics, Lecture Notes in Earth System Sciences, Springer-Verlag.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-34023-9"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2014.08.058","article-title":"Quantitative infrared thermography imaging of the density of heat flow rate through a building element surface","volume":"134","author":"Ohlsson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1096-9837(199603)21:3<295::AID-ESP637>3.0.CO;2-8","article-title":"Thermal Response Characteristics of Stone: Implications for Weathering of Soiled Surfaces in Urban Environments","volume":"21","author":"Warke","year":"1996","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Processes Landf."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Antony, S.J., Olugbenga, A., Ozerkan, N., Marumoame, O., and Okeke, G. (2016, January 11\u201315). Sensing Temperature and Stress Distributions on Rock Samples under Mechanical Loading. Proceedings of the 15th Biennial ASCE Conference on Engineering, Science, Construction, and Operations in Challenging Environments, Orland, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1061\/9780784479971.074"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/10\/9\/1401\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T15:18:34Z","timestamp":1760195914000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/10\/9\/1401"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,9,3]]},"references-count":76,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,9]]}},"alternative-id":["rs10091401"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs10091401","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,9,3]]}}}