{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,27]],"date-time":"2026-02-27T15:46:19Z","timestamp":1772207179885,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,9,6]],"date-time":"2018-09-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1536192000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Near-nadir interferometric imaging SAR (Synthetic Aperture Radar) techniques are promising in measuring global water extent and surface height at fine spatial and temporal resolutions. The concept of near-nadir interferometric measurements was implemented in the experimental Interferometric Imaging Radar Altimeters (InIRA) mounted on Chinese Tian Gong 2 (TG-2) space laboratory. This study is focused on mapping the extent of high mountain lakes in the remote Qinghai\u2013Tibet Plateau (QTP) areas using the InIRA observations. Theoretical simulations were first conducted to understand the scattering mechanisms under near-nadir observation geometry. It was found that water and surrounding land pixels are generally distinguishable depending on the degree of their difference in dielectric properties and surface roughness. The observed radar backscatter is also greatly influenced by incidence angles. A dynamic threshold method was then developed to detect water pixels based on the theoretical analysis and ancillary data. As assessed by the LandSat results, the overall classification accuracy is higher than 90%, though the classifications are affected by low backscatter possibly from very smooth water surface. The algorithms developed from this study can be extended to all InIRA land measurements and provide support for the similar space missions in the future.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10091418","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,9,6]],"date-time":"2018-09-06T10:38:38Z","timestamp":1536230318000},"page":"1418","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Mapping High Mountain Lakes Using Space-Borne Near-Nadir SAR Observations"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9888-9869","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shengyang","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Space Utilization, Technology and Engineering Center for Space Utilization, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100094, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5191-1731","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hong","family":"Tan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Space Utilization, Technology and Engineering Center for Space Utilization, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100094, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zhiwen","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Space Utilization, Technology and Engineering Center for Space Utilization, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100094, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zhuang","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Space Utilization, Technology and Engineering Center for Space Utilization, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100094, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yunfei","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Space Utilization, Technology and Engineering Center for Space Utilization, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100094, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Wanfeng","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Space Utilization, Technology and Engineering Center for Space Utilization, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100094, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kang","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Space Utilization, Technology and Engineering Center for Space Utilization, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100094, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Bangyong","family":"Qin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Space Utilization, Technology and Engineering Center for Space Utilization, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100094, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,9,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1007\/s11442-009-0131-z","article-title":"The response of lake change to climate fluctuation in north Qinghai-Tibet Plateau in last 30 years","volume":"19","author":"Bianduo","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Geogr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ma, R., Duan, H., Hu, C., Feng, X., Li, A., Ju, W., Jiang, J., and Yang, G. (2010). A half-century of changes in China\u2019s lakes: Global warming or human influence?. Geophys. Res. Lett., 37.","DOI":"10.1029\/2010GL045514"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1038\/nclimate1101","article-title":"Methane emissions from permafrost thaw lakes limited by lake drainage","volume":"1","author":"Berrittella","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat. Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1733","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2011.03.005","article-title":"Monitoring lake level changes on the Tibetan Plateau using ICESat altimetry data (2003\u20132009)","volume":"115","author":"Zhang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"663","DOI":"10.1038\/nclimate1580","article-title":"Different glacier status with atmospheric circulations in Tibetan Plateau and surroundings","volume":"2","author":"Yao","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2016.07.029","article-title":"Implementation of satellite based fractional water cover indices in the pan-Arctic region using AMSR-E and MODIS","volume":"184","author":"Du","year":"2016","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"F02S03","DOI":"10.1029\/2006JF000631","article-title":"Responses of permafrost to climate change and their environmental significance, Qinghai-Tibet Plateau","volume":"112","author":"Cheng","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Earth Surf."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gloplacha.2013.12.001","article-title":"Recent climate changes over the Tibetan Plateau and their impacts on energy and water cycle: A review","volume":"112","author":"Yang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Glob. Planet. Chang."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2173","DOI":"10.1007\/s11430-013-4700-8","article-title":"Analysis of spatial distribution and multi-year trend of the remotely sensed soil moisture on the Tibetan Plateau","volume":"56","author":"Liu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sci. China Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"71230S","article-title":"Dynamic changes of lakes and the geo-mechanism in Tibet based on RS and GIS technology","volume":"Volume 7123","author":"Tong","year":"2008","journal-title":"Remote Sensing of the Environment: 16th National Symposium on Remote Sensing of China"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1080\/17538940902951401","article-title":"A new global raster water mask at 250 m resolution","volume":"2","author":"Carroll","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Digit. Earth"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3010","DOI":"10.1007\/s11434-014-0258-x","article-title":"Lakes\u2019 state and abundance across the Tibetan Plateau","volume":"59","author":"Zhang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Chin. Sci. Bull."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1021","DOI":"10.1007\/s11434-014-0128-6","article-title":"Monitoring lake changes of Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau over the past 30 years using satellite remote sensing data","volume":"59","author":"Wan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Chin. Sci. Bull."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2014.09.002","article-title":"Global land cover mapping at 30 m resolution: A POK-based operational approach","volume":"103","author":"Chen","year":"2015","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"418","DOI":"10.1038\/nature20584","article-title":"High-resolution mapping of global surface water and its long-term changes","volume":"540","author":"Pekel","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1007\/s11430-010-4052-6","article-title":"China\u2019s lakes at present: Number, area and spatial distribution","volume":"54","author":"Ma","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sci. China Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Joshi, N., Baumann, M., Ehammer, A., Fensholt, R., Grogan, K., Hostert, P., Jepsen, M.R., Kuemmerle, T., Meyfroidt, P., and Mitchard, E.T. (2016). A review of the application of optical and radar remote sensing data fusion to land use mapping and monitoring. Remote Sens., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8010070"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D12107","DOI":"10.1029\/2006JD007847","article-title":"Global inundation dynamics inferred from multiple satellite observations, 1993\u20132000","volume":"112","author":"Prigent","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16688","DOI":"10.3390\/rs71215843","article-title":"Development and evaluation of a multi-year fractional surface water data set derived from active\/passive microwave remote sensing data","volume":"7","author":"Schroeder","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2018.04.054","article-title":"Assessing global surface water inundation dynamics using combined satellite information from SMAP, AMSR2 and Landsat","volume":"213","author":"Du","year":"2018","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2123","DOI":"10.1002\/2015WR017952","article-title":"How well will the Surface Water and Ocean Topography (SWOT) mission observe global reservoirs?","volume":"52","author":"Solander","year":"2016","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Fu, L.L., Alsdorf, D., Rodriguez, E., Morrow, R., Mognard, N., Lambin, J., Vaze, P., and Lafon, T. (2009, January 21\u201325). The SWOT (Surface Water and Ocean Topography) Mission: Spaceborne radar interferometry for oceanographic and hydrological applications. Proceedings of the OCEANOBS\u201909 Conference, Venice, Italy."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"766","DOI":"10.1109\/JPROC.2010.2043031","article-title":"The surface water and ocean topography mission: Observing terrestrial surface water and oceanic submesoscale eddies","volume":"98","author":"Durand","year":"2010","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2172","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2013.2258402","article-title":"KaRIn on SWOT: Characteristics of near-nadir Ka-band interferometric SAR imagery","volume":"52","author":"Fjortoft","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"515","DOI":"10.1007\/s10584-009-9617-z","article-title":"Dynamics of alpine grassland NPP and its response to climate change in Northern Tibet","volume":"97","author":"Gao","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.1007\/s10584-015-1578-9","article-title":"Contrasting evolution patterns between glacier-fed and non-glacier-fed lakes in the Tanggula Mountains and climate cause analysis","volume":"135","author":"Song","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mao, D., Wang, Z., Yang, H., Li, H., Thompson, J.R., Li, L., Song, K., Chen, B., Gao, H., and Wu, J. (2018). Impacts of climate change on Tibetan lakes: Patterns and processes. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10030358"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2014.12.014","article-title":"Improvement and expansion of the Fmask algorithm: Cloud, cloud shadow, and snow detection for Landsats 4\u20137, 8, and Sentinel 2 images","volume":"159","author":"Zhu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2017.07.002","article-title":"Improving Fmask cloud and cloud shadow detection in mountainous area for Landsats 4\u20138 images","volume":"199","author":"Qiu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"743","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2003.815405","article-title":"A reappraisal of the validity of the IEM model for backscattering from rough surfaces","volume":"42","author":"Wu","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2004.826564","article-title":"An update on the IEM surface backscattering model","volume":"1","author":"Fung","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1109\/36.823917","article-title":"Note on the multiple scattering in an IEM model","volume":"38","author":"Chen","year":"2000","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(99)00065-6","article-title":"Multifrequency soil moisture inversion from SAR measurements with the use of IEM","volume":"71","author":"Bindlish","year":"2000","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2007.02.034","article-title":"A parameterized multiple-scattering model for microwave emission from dry snow","volume":"111","author":"Jiang","year":"2007","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3691","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2010.483486","article-title":"The development of HJ SAR soil moisture retrieval algorithm","volume":"31","author":"Du","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3593","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160310001654392","article-title":"Semi-empirical calibration of the IEM backscattering model using radar images and moisture and roughness field measurements","volume":"25","author":"Baghdadi","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.1985.289498","article-title":"Microwave dielectric behavior of wet soil\u2014Part II: Dielectric mixing models","volume":"1","author":"Dobson","year":"1985","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.5194\/tc-7-287-2013","article-title":"Analysis of ice phenology of lakes on the Tibetan Plateau from MODIS data","volume":"7","author":"Maussion","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cryosphere"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"733","DOI":"10.1109\/TMTT.1971.1127617","article-title":"Equations for calculating the dielectric constant of saline water (correspondence)","volume":"19","author":"Stogryn","year":"1971","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Microw. Theory Tech."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Congalton, R.G., and Green, K. (2008). Assessing the Accuracy of Remotely Sensed Data: Principles and Practices, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/9781420055139"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/10\/9\/1418\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T15:19:09Z","timestamp":1760195949000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/10\/9\/1418"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,9,6]]},"references-count":40,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,9]]}},"alternative-id":["rs10091418"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs10091418","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,9,6]]}}}