{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,10]],"date-time":"2026-04-10T15:27:41Z","timestamp":1775834861489,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,9,10]],"date-time":"2018-09-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1536537600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002858","name":"China Postdoctoral Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["BX20180320"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BX20180320"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002858","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41621002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41621002"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41771514"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41771514"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Key Program of the Chinese Academy of Sciences","award":["ZDRW-ZS-2017-3-4"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ZDRW-ZS-2017-3-4"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Water clarity (via the Secchi disk depth, SDD) is an important indicator of water quality and lake ecosystem health. Monitoring long-term SDD change is vital for water quality assessment and lake management. In this study, we developed and validated an empirical model for estimating the SDD based on Landsat ETM+ and OLI data using the combination of band ratio of the near-infrared (NIR) band to the blue band and the NIR band. Time series data of remotely estimated SDD in Lake Liangzi were retrieved from 2007 to 2016 using the proposed models based on forty Landsat images. The results of the Mann\u2013Kendall test (p = 0.002) and linear regression (R2 = 0.352, p &lt; 0.001) indicated that the SDD in Lake Liangzi demonstrated a significant decreasing trend during the study period. The annual mean SDD in Lake Liangzi was significantly negatively correlated with the population (R2 = 0.530, p = 0.017) and gross domestic product (R2 = 0.619, p = 0.007) of the Lake Liangzi basin. In addition, water level increase and the flood have an important effect on SDD decrease. Our study revealed that anthropogenic activities may be driving factors for the long-term declining trend in the SDD. Additionally, floods and heavy precipitation may decrease the SDD over the short term in Lake Liangzi. A declining trend in the SDD in Lake Liangzi may continue under future intense anthropogenic activities and climate change such as the extreme heavy precipitation event increase.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10091441","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,9,10]],"date-time":"2018-09-10T10:28:57Z","timestamp":1536575337000},"page":"1441","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":35,"title":["Long-Term Changes in Water Clarity in Lake Liangzi Determined by Remote Sensing"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Xuan","family":"Xu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"National Field Station of Freshwater Ecosystem of Liangzi Lake, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, Hubei, China"},{"name":"Taihu Laboratory for Lake Ecosystem Research, State Key Laboratory of Lake Science and Environment, Nanjing Institute of Geography and Limnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing 210008, Jiangsu, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xiaolong","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Field Station of Freshwater Ecosystem of Liangzi Lake, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, Hubei, China"},{"name":"Taihu Laboratory for Lake Ecosystem Research, State Key Laboratory of Lake Science and Environment, Nanjing Institute of Geography and Limnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing 210008, Jiangsu, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3382-4570","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yunlin","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Taihu Laboratory for Lake Ecosystem Research, State Key Laboratory of Lake Science and Environment, Nanjing Institute of Geography and Limnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing 210008, Jiangsu, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Dan","family":"Yu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Field Station of Freshwater Ecosystem of Liangzi Lake, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, Hubei, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,9,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2017.04.035","article-title":"Improving water quality in China: Environmental investment pays dividends","volume":"118","author":"Zhou","year":"2017","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2014.10.032","article-title":"Using multi-temporal Landsat imagery and linear mixed models for assessing water quality parameters in R\u00edo Tercero Reservoir (Argentina)","volume":"158","author":"Bonansea","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1705","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2017.05.075","article-title":"Monitoring spatiotemporal variations in nutrients in a large drinking water reservoir and their relationships with hydrological and meteorological conditions based on Landsat 8 imagery","volume":"599","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shi, K., Zhang, Y.L., Zhou, Y.Q., Liu, X.H., Zhu, G.W., Qin, B.Q., and Gao, G. (2017). Long-term MODIS observations of cyanobacterial dynamics in lake taihu: Responses to nutrient enrichment and meteorological factors. Sci. Rep.","DOI":"10.1038\/srep40326"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, Y.L., Giardino, C., and Li, L.H. (2017). Water optics and water colour remote sensing. Remote Sens., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9080818"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13975","DOI":"10.3390\/rs71013975","article-title":"Landsat-based long-term monitoring of total suspended matter concentration pattern change in the wet season for Dongting lake, China","volume":"7","author":"Zheng","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2013.03.024","article-title":"Remote sensing of Chlorophyll-a as a measure of cyanobacterial biomass in Lake Bogoria, a hypertrophic, saline-alkaline, flamingo lake, using Landsat ETM","volume":"135","author":"Tebbs","year":"2013","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"398","article-title":"A Landsat 8 OLI-based, semianalytical model for estimating the total suspended matter concentration in the slightly turbid Xin\u2019anjiang Reservoir (China)","volume":"9","author":"Zhang","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE J."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2012.03.006","article-title":"Combining lake and watershed characteristics with Landsat TM data for remote estimation of regional lake clarity","volume":"123","author":"Mccullough","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2016.01.007","article-title":"Comparison of Landsat 8 and Landsat 7 for regional measurements of CDOM and water clarity in lakes","volume":"185","author":"Olmanson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"287","article-title":"Deteriorating water clarity in shallow waters: Evidence from long term modis and in-situ observations","volume":"68","author":"Shi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2016.08.020","article-title":"Changes in water clarity of the Bohai Sea: Observations from MODIS","volume":"186","author":"Shang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1007\/s10750-017-3387-9","article-title":"Water brownification may not promote invasions of submerged non-native macrophytes","volume":"817","author":"Xu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Hydrobiologia"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6855","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2010.512947","article-title":"A current review of empirical procedures of remote sensing in inland and near-coastal transitional waters","volume":"32","author":"Matthews","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5737","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-014-2524-5","article-title":"Impacts of population growth and economic development on water quality of a lake: Case study of Lake Victoria Kenya water","volume":"21","author":"Juma","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3522","DOI":"10.1021\/es8031852","article-title":"Two-decade reconstruction of algal blooms in China\u2019s Lake Taihu","volume":"43","author":"Duan","year":"2009","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"376","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2017.10.316","article-title":"Land use changes and socio-economic development strongly deteriorate river ecosystem health in one of the largest basins in China","volume":"616","author":"Cheng","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2014.03.031","article-title":"Satellite data regarding the eutrophication response to human activities in the plateau lake Dianchi in China from 1974 to 2009","volume":"485","author":"Huang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2529","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-17-2529-2013","article-title":"Variation in turbidity with precipitation and flow in a regulated river system-river Variation in turbidity with precipitation and flow in a regulated river system-river G\u00f6ta \u00c4lv, SW Sweden","volume":"17","author":"Goransson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2015.08.018","article-title":"Extreme weather events: Should drinking water quality management systems adapt to changing risk profiles?","volume":"85","author":"Khan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1985","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jes.2014.08.001","article-title":"Changes in the quality of river water before, during and after a major flood event associated with a La Ni\u00f1a cycle and treatment for drinking purposes","volume":"26","author":"Murshed","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2015.11.020","article-title":"Monitoring the river plume induced by heavy rainfall events in large, shallow, Lake Taihu using MODIS 250 m imagery","volume":"173","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12907","DOI":"10.1038\/srep12907","article-title":"Differences in the regeneration traits of potamogeton crispus turions from macrophyte- and phytoplankton-dominated lakes","volume":"5","author":"Xie","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1016\/j.earscirev.2017.08.013","article-title":"Global loss of aquatic vegetation in lakes","volume":"173","author":"Zhang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Earth Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1080\/02705060.2008.9664553","article-title":"Occurrence of aquatic macrophytes in a eutrophic subtropical lake in relation to toxic wastewater and fish overstocking","volume":"23","author":"Liu","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Freshw. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2016.02.033","article-title":"A semi-analytical scheme to estimate secchi-disk depth from Landsat-8 measurements","volume":"177","author":"Lee","year":"2016","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17051","DOI":"10.1029\/96JD03988","article-title":"Operational remote sensing of tropospheric aerosol over land from EOS moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer","volume":"102","author":"Kaufman","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atoms."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2016.1176268","article-title":"Atmospheric correction of Hyperion imagery over estuarine waters: A case study of the Pearl River Estuary in southern China","volume":"38","author":"Liu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"4189","article-title":"Atmospheric correction of Aisa measurements over the Florida keys optically shallow waters: Challenges in radiometric calibration and aerosol selection","volume":"8","author":"Zhang","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE J."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1080\/07438140509354442","article-title":"Landsat-based remote sensing of lake water quality characteristics, including Chlorophyll and colored dissolved organic matter (CDOM)","volume":"21","author":"Brezonik","year":"2005","journal-title":"Lake Reserv. Manag."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2011.02.023","article-title":"Influence of atmospheric correction and number of sampling points on the accuracy of water clarity assessment using remote sensing application","volume":"401","author":"Sriwongsitanon","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tan, W.X., Liu, P.C., Liu, Y., Yang, S., and Feng, S.N. (2017). A 30-year assessment of phytoplankton blooms in Erhai Lake using Landsat imagery: 1987 to 2016. Remote Sens., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9121265"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4086","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2007.12.013","article-title":"A 20-year Landsat water clarity census of Minnesota\u2019s 10,000 lakes","volume":"112","author":"Olmanson","year":"2008","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1016\/j.advwatres.2010.08.010","article-title":"Estimation of water clarity in Taihu Lake and surrounding rivers using Landsat imagery","volume":"34","author":"Zhao","year":"2011","journal-title":"Adv. Water Resour."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"28","article-title":"Application of Landsat 8 imagery to regional-scale assessment of lake water quality","volume":"51","author":"Urbanski","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"1","article-title":"Long-term changes in secchi depth and the role of phytoplankton in explaining light attenuation in the Baltic Sea","volume":"102","author":"Laamanen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Estuar. Coast. Shelf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2206","DOI":"10.1111\/gcb.12854","article-title":"Decrease in water clarity of the southern and central North sea during the 20th century","volume":"21","author":"Capuzzo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Glob. Chang. Biol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cao, N., Lee, H., Jung, H.C., and Yu, H.W. (2018). Estimation of water level changes of large-scale Amazon wetlands using ALOS2 ScanSAR differential interferometry. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10060966"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1007\/s00027-004-0708-7","article-title":"Increased colour and organic acid concentrations in Norwegian forest lakes and drinking water\u2013a result of increased precipitation?","volume":"66","author":"Hongve","year":"2004","journal-title":"Aquat. Sci."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gloplacha.2018.03.013","article-title":"Ecological shift and resilience in China\u2019s lake systems during the last two centuries","volume":"165","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Glob. Planet. Chang."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1016\/S0141-1136(02)00276-3","article-title":"The influence of fish cage aquaculture on pelagic carbon flow and water chemistry in tidally dominated mangrove estuaries of peninsular Malaysia","volume":"55","author":"Alongi","year":"2003","journal-title":"Mar. Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"912","DOI":"10.4319\/lo.1996.41.5.0912","article-title":"Effects of lake size, water clarity, and climatic variability on mixing depths in Canadian Shield lakes","volume":"41","author":"Fee","year":"1996","journal-title":"Limnol. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1022","DOI":"10.1002\/2017JG003767","article-title":"Increasing dissolved organic carbon concentrations in northern boreal lakes: Implications for lake water transparency and thermal structure","volume":"122","author":"Strock","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Biogeosci."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"591","DOI":"10.1038\/35098000","article-title":"Catastrophic shifts in ecosystems","volume":"413","author":"Scheffer","year":"2001","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1016\/0169-5347(93)90254-M","article-title":"Alternative equilibria in shallow lakes","volume":"8","author":"Scheffer","year":"1993","journal-title":"Trends Ecol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2427.2009.02294.x","article-title":"Ecological and socio-economic impacts of invasive water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes): A review","volume":"55","author":"Villamagna","year":"2010","journal-title":"Freshw. Biol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"628","DOI":"10.1002\/lno.10656","article-title":"Patterns and drivers of deep Chlorophyll maxima structure in 100 lakes: The relative importance of light and thermal stratification","volume":"63","author":"Leach","year":"2018","journal-title":"Limnol. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4975","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1619575114","article-title":"Ocean warming since 1982 has expanded the niche of toxic algal blooms in the north Atlantic and north Pacific oceans","volume":"114","author":"Gobler","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E101","DOI":"10.1111\/gcb.13886","article-title":"Detection of climate change-driven trends in phytoplankton phenology","volume":"24","author":"Henson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Glob. Chang. Biol."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/10\/9\/1441\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T15:19:38Z","timestamp":1760195978000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/10\/9\/1441"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,9,10]]},"references-count":49,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,9]]}},"alternative-id":["rs10091441"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs10091441","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,9,10]]}}}