{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,25]],"date-time":"2026-02-25T21:49:57Z","timestamp":1772056197068,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":44,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,9,19]],"date-time":"2018-09-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1537315200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Open Fund of State Laboratory of Information Engineering in Surveying, Mapping and Remote Sensing, Wuhan University","award":["17R03"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["17R03"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012226","name":"Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2018QD02"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2018QD02"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012226","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Excessive groundwater exploitation is common through the Taiyuan basin, China, and is well known to result in ground subsidence. However, most ground subsidence studies in this region focus on a single place (Taiyuan city), and thus fail to demonstrate the regional extent of the deformation phenomena in the whole basin. In this study, we used Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR) time series analysis to investigate land subsidence across the entire Taiyuan basin region. Our data set includes a total of 75 ENVISAT ASAR images from two different frames acquired from August 2003 to September 2010 and 33 TerraSAR-X scenes spanning between March 2009 and March 2010. ERA-Interim reanalysis was used to correct the stratified delay to reduce the bias expected from the systematic components of tropospheric delay. The residual delay after correction of stratified delay can be considered as a stochastic component and be mitigated through spatial-temporal filtering. A comparison with MERIS (Medium-Resolution Imaging Spectrometer) measurements indicates that our atmospheric corrections improved agreement over the conventional spatial-temporal filtering by about 20%. The displacement results from our atmosphere-corrected time series InSAR were further validated with continuous GPS data. We found eight subsiding centers in the basin and a surface uplift to the north of Taiyuan city. The causes of ground deformation are analyzed and discussed in relation to gravity data, pre-existing faults, and types of land use.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10091499","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,9,19]],"date-time":"2018-09-19T10:50:31Z","timestamp":1537354231000},"page":"1499","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":18,"title":["Investigation of Ground Deformation in Taiyuan Basin, China from 2003 to 2010, with Atmosphere-Corrected Time Series InSAR"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1127-0052","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wei","family":"Tang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Geoscience and Surveying Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology, Beijing 100083, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1717-8425","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Peng","family":"Yuan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Geodetic Institute, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mingsheng","family":"Liao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Information Engineering in Surveying, Mapping and Remote Sensing, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430079, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1624-4697","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Timo","family":"Balz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Information Engineering in Surveying, Mapping and Remote Sensing, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430079, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,9,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2013.08.038","article-title":"Land subsidence in central Mexico detected by ALOS InSAR time-series","volume":"140","author":"Chaussard","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L16403","DOI":"10.1029\/2008GL033814","article-title":"Land subsidence in Iran caused by widespread water reservoir overexploitation","volume":"35","author":"Motagh","year":"2008","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2017.01.011","article-title":"Quantifying groundwater exploitation induced subsidence in the Rafsanjan plain, southeastern Iran, using InSAR time-series and in situ measurements","volume":"218","author":"Motagh","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, Z., Li, Z., Zhu, J., Preusse, A., Yi, H., Hu, J., Feng, G., and Papst, M. (2017). Retrieving 3-D large displacements of mining areas from a single amplitude pair of SAR using offset tracking. Remote Sens., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9040338"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15542","DOI":"10.1038\/srep15542","article-title":"InSAR analysis of surface deformation over permafrost to estimate active layer thickness based on one-dimensional heat transfer model of soils","volume":"5","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"657","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-14-657-2014","article-title":"Recent land subsidence caused by the rapid urban development in the Hanoi region (Vietnam) using ALOS InSAR data","volume":"14","author":"Dang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2018.2880562","article-title":"Land subsidence in Taiyuan, China, monitored by InSAR technique with multisensor SAR datasets from 1992 to 2015","volume":"11","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"310","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asr.2016.05.003","article-title":"Atmospheric correction in time-series SAR interferometry for land surface deformation mapping\u2014A case study of Taiyuan, China","volume":"58","author":"Tang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Adv. Sp. Res."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1080\/2150704X.2013.864789","article-title":"Two-dimensional deformation monitoring over Qingxu (China) by integrating C-, L- and X-bands SAR images","volume":"5","author":"Zhang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Ma, R., Wang, Y., Yan, C., and Ma, T. (2005, January 23\u201328). Simulation of subsidence in different compressible layers due to groundwater withdrawal in Taiyuan, Shanxi, China. Proceedings of the Seventh International Symposium on Land Subsidence, Shanghai, China."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Ma, T., Wang, Y., Yan, S., Ma, R., Yan, C., and Zhou, X. (2005, January 23\u201328). Causes of land subsidence in Taiyuan City, Shanxi, China. Proceedings of the Seventh International Symposium on Land Subsidence, Shanghai, China."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Yan, S., Guo, Q., and Zhou, X. (2005, January 23\u201328). Design of land subsidence monitoring network: A case study at Taiyuan, Shanxi, China. Proceedings of the Seventh International Symposium on Land Subsidence, Shanghai, China."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1142","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2007.894440","article-title":"Submillimeter Accuracy of InSAR Time Series: Experimental Validation","volume":"45","author":"Ferretti","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1142","DOI":"10.1029\/2002JB002267","article-title":"Time-dependent land uplift and subsidence in the Santa Clara valley, California, from a large interferometric synthetic aperture radar data set","volume":"108","author":"Schmidt","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2015.08.035","article-title":"Statistical comparison of InSAR tropospheric correction techniques","volume":"170","author":"Bekaert","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3421","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2013.2272791","article-title":"Joint correction of ionosphere noise and orbital error in L-band SAR interferometry of interseismic deformation in southern California","volume":"52","author":"Liu","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2018.02.048","article-title":"Ionospheric correction of InSAR data for accurate ice velocity measurement at polar regions","volume":"209","author":"Liao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lin, Y.N., Simons, M., Hetland, E.A., Muse, P., and DiCaprio, C. (2010). A multiscale approach to estimating topographically correlated propagation delays in radar interferograms. Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 11.","DOI":"10.1029\/2010GC003228"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Onn, F., and Zebker, H.A. (2006). Correction for interferometric synthetic aperture radar atmospheric phase artifacts using time series of zenith wet delay observations from a GPS network. J. Geophys. Res., 111.","DOI":"10.1029\/2005JB004012"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2008","DOI":"10.1002\/2016JD025753","article-title":"Generation of real-time mode high-resolution water vapor fields from GPS observations","volume":"122","author":"Yu","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2017.10.038","article-title":"Interferometric synthetic aperture radar atmospheric correction using a GPS-based iterative tropospheric decomposition model","volume":"204","author":"Yu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, Z.H., Muller, J.P., and Cross, P. (2003). Comparison of precipitable water vapor derived from radiosonde, GPS, and Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer measurements. J. Geophys. Res., 108.","DOI":"10.1029\/2003JD003372"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2324","DOI":"10.1002\/2013JB010588","article-title":"Improving InSAR geodesy using Global Atmospheric Models","volume":"119","author":"Jolivet","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth"},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"40","article-title":"A new algorithm for surface deformation monitoring based on small baseline differential SAR interferograms","volume":"10","author":"Berardino","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1109\/36.898661","article-title":"Permanent scatters in SAR interferometry","volume":"39","author":"Ferretti","year":"2001","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1029\/2006JB004763","article-title":"Persistent scatterer interferometric synthetic aperture radar for crustal deformation analysis, with application to Volc\u00e1n Alcedo, Gal\u00e1pagos","volume":"112","author":"Hooper","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8758","DOI":"10.1002\/2015JB012419","article-title":"InSAR bias and uncertainty due to the systematic and stochastic tropospheric delay","volume":"120","author":"Fattahi","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gexplo.2012.08.019","article-title":"Geochemistry of iodine-rich groundwater in the Taiyuan Basin of central Shanxi Province, North China","volume":"135","author":"Tang","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Geochem. Explor."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1171","DOI":"10.1007\/s00190-014-0752-6","article-title":"Deformation analysis of the Lake Urmia causeway (LUC) embankments in northwest Iran: Insights from multi-sensor interferometry synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) data and finite element modeling (FEM)","volume":"12","author":"Shamshiri","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Geod."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2017.04.009","article-title":"Characterizing post-construction settlement of the Masjed-Soleyman embankment dam, Southwest Iran, using TerraSAR-X SpotLight radar imagery","volume":"143","author":"Emadali","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"535","article-title":"Analysis of Anhui CORS reference stations 3D velocity field","volume":"41","author":"Yuan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Geomatics Inf. Sci. Wuhan Univ."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"24","article-title":"Gravity change and subsidence of Tiyuan Basin","volume":"34","author":"Xuan","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Geod. Geodyn."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Ramon, H. (2001). Radar Interferometry: Data Interpretation and Error Analysis, Springer. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tecto.2011.10.013","article-title":"Recent advances in SAR interferometry time series analysis for measuring crustal deformation","volume":"514","author":"Hooper","year":"2012","journal-title":"Tectonophysics"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2678","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2013.2264532","article-title":"Correction of atmospheric phase screen in time series InSAR using WRF model for monitoring volcanic activities","volume":"52","author":"Jung","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jog.2013.06.003","article-title":"Recent ground deformation of Taiyuan basin (China) investigated with C-, L-, and X-bands SAR images","volume":"70","author":"Zhu","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Geodyn."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"476","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1101875","article-title":"A network of superconducting gravimeters detects submicrogal coseismic gravity changes","volume":"306","author":"Imanishi","year":"2004","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7288","DOI":"10.1002\/2014JB011506","article-title":"Gravity changes and deformation at K\u012blauea Volcano, Hawaii, associated with summit eruptive activity, 2009\u20132012","volume":"119","author":"Bagnardi","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1179\/003962609X451672","article-title":"Land subsidence using absolute and relative gravimetry: A case study in central Taiwan","volume":"42","author":"Hwang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Surv. Rev."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"72","article-title":"Study on the characteristics of ground fissures in Shanxi fault basin","volume":"27","author":"Chen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Chin. J. Geol. Hazards Control"},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"91","article-title":"Relationship between ground fissures, groundwater exploration and land subsidence in Taiyuan basin","volume":"27","author":"Sun","year":"2016","journal-title":"Chin. J. Geol. Hazards Control"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1025","DOI":"10.1130\/0091-7613(1996)024<1025:FZAAPS>2.3.CO;2","article-title":"Fault zone architechture and permeability structure","volume":"24","author":"Caine","year":"1996","journal-title":"Geology"},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Teufel, L.W. (July, January 29). Permeability changes during shear deformation of fractured rock. Proceedings of the 28th U.S. Symposium on Rock Mechanics (USRMS), Tucson, AZ, USA."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2004.06.006","article-title":"Review on current status and challenging issues of land subsidence in China","volume":"76","author":"Hu","year":"2004","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/10\/9\/1499\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T15:21:31Z","timestamp":1760196091000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/10\/9\/1499"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,9,19]]},"references-count":44,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,9]]}},"alternative-id":["rs10091499"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs10091499","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,9,19]]}}}