{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,21]],"date-time":"2026-03-21T20:06:15Z","timestamp":1774123575286,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,10]],"date-time":"2018-11-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1541808000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"LEMONADE (http:\/\/lemonade.mountainresearch.at) funded by the Euregio Science Fund and the ALPSMOTION (ALPine Slow slope Movement moniTorIng and detectiON with remote and proximal sensing) project, coordinated by Eurac Research-Institute for Earth Observat","award":["-"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["-"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The Copernicus Sentinel-1 mission provides synthetic aperture radar (SAR) acquisitions over large areas with high temporal and spatial resolution. This new generation of satellites providing open-data products has enhanced the capabilities for continuously studying Earth surface changes. Over the past two decades, several studies have demonstrated the potential of differential synthetic aperture radar interferometry (DInSAR) for detecting and quantifying land surface deformation. DInSAR limitations and challenges are linked to the SAR properties and the field conditions (especially in mountainous environments) leading to spatial and temporal decorrelation of the SAR signal. High temporal decorrelation can be caused by changes in vegetation (particularly in nonurban areas), atmospheric conditions, or high ground surface velocity. In this study, the kinematics of the complex and vegetated Corvara landslide, situated in Val Badia (South Tyrol, Italy), are monitored by a network of three permanent and 13 monthly measured benchmark points measured with the differential global navigation satellite system (DGNSS) technique. The slope displacement rates are found to be highly unsteady and reach several meters a year. This paper focuses firstly on evaluating the performance of DInSAR changing unwrapping and coherence parameters with Sentinel-1 imagery, and secondly, on applying DInSAR with DGNSS measurements to monitor an active and complex landslide. To this end, 41 particular SAR images, coherence thresholds, and 2D and 3D unwrapping processes give various results in terms of reliability and accuracy, supporting the understanding of the landslide velocity field. Evolutions of phase changes are analysed according to the coherence, the changing field conditions, and the monitored ground-based displacements.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10111781","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,14]],"date-time":"2018-11-14T02:42:41Z","timestamp":1542163361000},"page":"1781","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":32,"title":["Sentinel-1 and Ground-Based Sensors for Continuous Monitoring of the Corvara Landslide (South Tyrol, Italy)"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2967-6667","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mehdi","family":"Darvishi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Earth Observation, Eurac Research, Viale Druso 1, 39100 Bolzano, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Information Engineering and Computer Science, University of Trento, Via Sommarive 9, 38123 Povo, Trento, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2482-2522","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Romy","family":"Schl\u00f6gel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Earth Observation, Eurac Research, Viale Druso 1, 39100 Bolzano, Italy"},{"name":"ESA Climate Office, ECSAT, Fermi Avenue, Harwell Science &amp; Innovation Campus, Didcot, Oxfordshire OX11 0QX, UK"}]},{"given":"Christian","family":"Kofler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Earth Observation, Eurac Research, Viale Druso 1, 39100 Bolzano, Italy"}]},{"given":"Giovanni","family":"Cuozzo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Earth Observation, Eurac Research, Viale Druso 1, 39100 Bolzano, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6628-4681","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Martin","family":"Rutzinger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Interdisciplinary Mountain Research (IGF), Austrian Academy of Sciences, Technikerstr. 21a, Otto Hittmair-Platz 1, ICT, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria"}]},{"given":"Thomas","family":"Zieher","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Interdisciplinary Mountain Research (IGF), Austrian Academy of Sciences, Technikerstr. 21a, Otto Hittmair-Platz 1, ICT, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria"}]},{"given":"Isabella","family":"Toschi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"3D Optical Metrology (3DOM) Unit, Bruno Kessler Foundation (FBK), Via Sommarive 18, 38123 Povo, Trento, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6097-5342","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fabio","family":"Remondino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"3D Optical Metrology (3DOM) Unit, Bruno Kessler Foundation (FBK), Via Sommarive 18, 38123 Povo, Trento, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3320-5681","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abraham","family":"Mejia-Aguilar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Earth Observation, Eurac Research, Viale Druso 1, 39100 Bolzano, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9067-2120","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Benni","family":"Thiebes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Earth Observation, Eurac Research, Viale Druso 1, 39100 Bolzano, Italy"},{"name":"German Committee for Disaster Reduction (DKKV), Kaiser-Friedrich-Str. 13, 53113 Bonn, Germany"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6036-459X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lorenzo","family":"Bruzzone","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Engineering and Computer Science, University of Trento, Via Sommarive 9, 38123 Povo, Trento, Italy"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"927","DOI":"10.1130\/G33217.1","article-title":"Global patterns of loss of life from landslides","volume":"40","author":"Petley","year":"2012","journal-title":"Geology"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Guzzetti, F. (2006). Landslide Hazard and Risk Assessment. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Bonn]."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1016\/j.earscirev.2012.02.001","article-title":"Landslide inventory maps: {New} tools for an old problem","volume":"112","author":"Guzzetti","year":"2012","journal-title":"Earth-Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1007\/s10064-005-0023-0","article-title":"Landslide hazard and risk zonation\u2014Why is it still so difficult?","volume":"65","author":"Soeters","year":"2006","journal-title":"Bull. Eng. Geol. Environ."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Novellis, V., Castaldo, R., Lollino, P., Manunta, M., and Tizzani, P. (2016). Advanced three-dimensional finite element modeling of a slow landslide through the exploitation of DInSAR measurements and in situ surveys. Remote Sens., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8080670"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2013.11.003","article-title":"Enhanced landslide investigations through advanced DInSAR techniques: The Ivancich case study, Assisi, Italy","volume":"142","author":"Ardizzone","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2013.07.002","article-title":"Analysis of the deep-seated gravitational slope deformations over Mt. Frascare (Central Italy) with geomorphological assessment and DInSAR approaches","volume":"201","author":"Tolomei","year":"2013","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1016\/S0267-7261(99)00012-3","article-title":"Earthquake-induced landslides: 1980\u20131997","volume":"18","author":"Bommer","year":"1999","journal-title":"Soil Dyn. Earthq. Eng."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2011.05.028","article-title":"GMES Sentinel-1 mission","volume":"120","author":"Torres","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2011.09.030","article-title":"Sentinel 1 SAR interferometry applications: The outlook for sub millimeter measurements","volume":"120","author":"Rucci","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"501","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2016.09.009","article-title":"Monitoring activity at the Daguangbao mega-landslide (China) using Sentinel-1 TOPS time series interferometry","volume":"186","author":"Dai","year":"2016","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1176","DOI":"10.1016\/j.procs.2016.09.275","article-title":"Automatic and systematic Sentinel-1 SBAS-DInSAR processing chain for deformation time-series generation","volume":"100","author":"Bonano","year":"2016","journal-title":"Procedia Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"3890","article-title":"Unsupervised parallel SBAS-DInSAR chain for massive and systematic Sentinel-1 data processing","volume":"2016","author":"Manunta","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. Geosci. Remote Sens. Symp."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tom\u00e1s, R., Romero, R., Mulas, J., Marturi\u00e0, J.J., Mallorqu\u00ed, J.J., Lopez-Sanchez, J.M., Herrera, G., Guti\u00e9rrez, F., Gonz\u00e1lez, P.J., and Fern\u00e1ndez, J. (2014). Radar interferometry techniques for the study of ground subsidence phenomena: A review of practical issues through cases in Spain. Environ. Earth Sci., 71.","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-013-2422-z"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1109\/36.898661","article-title":"Permanent scatterers in SAR interferometry","volume":"39","author":"Ferretti","year":"2001","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2375","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2002.803792","article-title":"A new algorithm for surface deformation monitoring based on small baseline differential SAR interferograms","volume":"40","author":"Berardino","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jog.2009.10.011","article-title":"Recent advances on surface ground deformation measurement by means of repeated space-borne SAR observations","volume":"49","author":"Prati","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Geodyn."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L16302","DOI":"10.1029\/2008GL034654","article-title":"A multi-temporal InSAR method incorporating both persistent scatterer and small baseline approaches","volume":"35","author":"Hooper","year":"2008","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2014.03.003","article-title":"Investigating landslides and unstable slopes with satellite Multi Temporal Interferometry: Current issues and future perspectives","volume":"174","author":"Wasowski","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2006.09.013","article-title":"Investigating landslides with space-borne Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) interferometry","volume":"88","author":"Colesanti","year":"2006","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4062","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2011.2135371","article-title":"New advances of the extended minimum cost flow phase unwrapping algorithm for SBAS-DInSAR analysis at full spatial resolution","volume":"49","author":"Pepe","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"713","DOI":"10.1029\/RS023i004p00713","article-title":"Satellite radar interferometry: Two-dimensional phase unwrapping","volume":"23","author":"Goldstein","year":"1988","journal-title":"Radio Sci."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"338","DOI":"10.1364\/JOSAA.18.000338","article-title":"Two-dimensional phase unwrapping with use of statistical models for cost functions in nonlinear optimization","volume":"18","author":"Chen","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Opt. Soc. Am. A"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1107","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.14.001107","article-title":"Direct phase estimation from phase differences using fast elliptic partial differential equation solvers","volume":"14","author":"Ghiglia","year":"1989","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"950","DOI":"10.1109\/36.175330","article-title":"Decorrelation in interferometric radar echoes","volume":"30","author":"Zebker","year":"1992","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7547","DOI":"10.1029\/96JB03804","article-title":"Atmospheric effects in interferometric synthetic aperture radar surface deformation and topographic maps","volume":"102","author":"Zebker","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1403","DOI":"10.1007\/s00024-009-0500-7","article-title":"Coseismic three-dimensional displacements determined using SAR data: Theory and an application test","volume":"166","author":"Fernandez","year":"2009","journal-title":"Pure Appl. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1815","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2010.2103078","article-title":"Simultaneous and integrated strain tensor estimation from geodetic and satellite deformation measurements to obtain three-dimensional displacement maps","volume":"49","author":"Guglielmino","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2005.858483","article-title":"Analytical optimization of a DInSAR and GPS dataset for derivation of three-dimensional surface motion","volume":"3","author":"Samsonov","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"512","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2006.887166","article-title":"Application of DInSAR-GPS optimization for derivation of fine-scale surface motion maps of southern California","volume":"45","author":"Samsonov","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"David, F.W. (1992). A Guide to the Analysis and Display of Spatial Data 1992, Pergamon."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Cressie, N. (2015). Statistics for Spatial Data, John Wiley & Sons."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Moritz, H. (1980). Advanced Physical Geodesy, Wichmann."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-014-0482-0","article-title":"Coupling of GPS\/GNSS and radar interferometric data for a 3D surface displacement monitoring of landslides","volume":"12","author":"Komac","year":"2015","journal-title":"Landslides"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lollino, G., Giordan, D., Thuro, K., Carranza-Torres, C., Wu, F., Marinos, P., and Delgado, C. (2015). Engineering Geology for Society and Territory\u2014Volume 6: Applied Geology for Major Engineering Projects, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-09060-3"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"629","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jastp.2005.11.010","article-title":"InSAR tropospheric delay mitigation by GPS observations: A case study in Tokyo area","volume":"68","author":"Xu","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sol. Terr. Phys."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schl\u00f6gel, R., Thiebes, B., Mulas, M., Cuozzo, G., Notarnicola, C., Schneiderbauer, S., Crespi, M., Mazzoni, A., Mair, V., and Corsini, A. (2017). Multi-temporal X-Band radar interferometry using corner reflectors: Application and validation at the Corvara Landslide (Dolomites, Italy). Remote Sens., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9070739"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1016\/S0341-8162(03)00113-9","article-title":"Landslides and climate change in the Italian Dolomites since the Late glacial","volume":"55","author":"Soldati","year":"2004","journal-title":"CATENA"},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"127","article-title":"Holocene slope dynamics in the area of Corvara in Badia (Dolomites, Italy): Chronology and paleoclimatic significance of some landslides","volume":"24","author":"Corsini","year":"2001","journal-title":"Geogr. Fis. Din. Quat."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1002\/jqs.1039","article-title":"A lacustrine record of early Holocene watershed events and vegetation history, Corvara in Badia, Dolomites (Italy)","volume":"22","author":"Borgatti","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Quat. Sci."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2004.09.012","article-title":"Field monitoring of the Corvara landslide (Dolomites, Italy) and its relevance for hazard assessment","volume":"66","author":"Corsini","year":"2005","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Cruden, D.M., Varnes, D.J., Turner, A.K., and Schuster, R.L. (1996). Landslides Investigation and Mitigation, Special Report 247, Transportation Research Board."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"827","DOI":"10.5194\/isprsarchives-XL-7-W3-827-2015","article-title":"Long-term monitoring of a deep-seated, slow-moving landslide by mean of C-Band and X-Band advanced interferometric products: The Corvara in Badia case study (Dolomites, Italy)","volume":"XL-7\/W3","author":"Mulas","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Darvishi, M., Schl\u00f6gel, R., Bruzzone, L., and Cuozzo, G. (2018). Integration of PSI, MAI, and intensity-based sub-pixel offset tracking results for landslide monitoring with X-band corner reflectors-Italian Alps (Corvara). Remote Sens.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10030409"},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"SARMAP (2012). SARScape: Technical Description, SARMAP."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"813","DOI":"10.1109\/36.673674","article-title":"A novel phase unwrapping method based on network programming","volume":"36","author":"Costantini","year":"1998","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2374","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2006.873207","article-title":"On the extension of the minimum cost flow algorithm for phase unwrapping of multitemporal differential SAR interferograms","volume":"44","author":"Pepe","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hanssen, R.F. (2001). Radar Interferometry: Data Interpretation and Error Analysis, Springer Science & Business Media.","DOI":"10.1007\/0-306-47633-9"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2737","DOI":"10.1364\/JOSAA.24.002737","article-title":"Phase unwrapping in three dimensions with application to InSAR time series","volume":"24","author":"Hooper","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Opt. Soc. Am."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/10\/11\/1781\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T15:29:00Z","timestamp":1760196540000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/10\/11\/1781"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,10]]},"references-count":49,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,11]]}},"alternative-id":["rs10111781"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs10111781","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,10]]}}}