{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,28]],"date-time":"2026-02-28T04:29:31Z","timestamp":1772252971780,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":39,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,21]],"date-time":"2018-11-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1542758400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000104","name":"National Aeronautics and Space Administration","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NNX13AL96G"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NNX13AL96G"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000104","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100006196","name":"Jet Propulsion Laboratory","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["147871"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["147871"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100006196","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Characterizing 3-D structure of clouds is needed for a more complete understanding of the Earth\u2019s radiative and latent heat fluxes. Here we develop and explore a ray casting algorithm applied to data from the Multi-angle Imaging SpectroRadiometer (MISR) onboard the Terra satellite, in order to reconstruct 3-D cloud volumes of observed clouds. The ray casting algorithm is first applied to geometrically simple synthetic clouds to show that, under the assumption of perfect, clear-conservative cloud masks, the reconstruction method yields overestimation in the volume whose magnitude depends on the cloud geometry and the resolution of the reconstruction grid relative to the image pixel resolution. The method is then applied to two hand-picked MISR scenes, fully accounting for MISR\u2019s viewing geometry for reconstructions over the Earth\u2019s ellipsoidal surface. The MISR Radiometric Camera-by-camera Cloud Mask (RCCM) at 1.1-km resolution and the custom cloud mask at 275-m resolution independently derived from MISR\u2019s red, green, and blue channels are used as input cloud masks. A wind correction method, termed cloud spreading, is applied to the cloud masks to offset potential cloud movements over short time intervals between the camera views of a scene. The MISR cloud-top height product is used as a constraint to reduce the overestimation at the cloud top. The results for the two selected scenes show that the wind correction using the cloud spreading method increases the reconstructed volume up to 4.7 times greater than without the wind correction, and that the reconstructed volume generated from the RCCM is up to 3.5 times greater than that from the higher-resolution custom cloud mask. Recommendations for improving the presented cloud volume reconstructions, as well as possible future passive remote sensing satellite missions, are discussed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10111858","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,22]],"date-time":"2018-11-22T09:18:25Z","timestamp":1542878305000},"page":"1858","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Three-Dimensional Cloud Volume Reconstruction from the Multi-angle Imaging SpectroRadiometer"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Byungsuk","family":"Lee","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Atmospheric Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1301 W. Green St., Urbana, IL 61801, USA"}]},{"given":"Larry","family":"Di Girolamo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Atmospheric Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1301 W. Green St., Urbana, IL 61801, USA"}]},{"given":"Guangyu","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Atmospheric Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1301 W. Green St., Urbana, IL 61801, USA"}]},{"given":"Yizhe","family":"Zhan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Atmospheric Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1301 W. Green St., Urbana, IL 61801, USA"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marshak, A., and Davis, A. (2005). 3D Radiative Transfer in Cloudy Atmospheres, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/3-540-28519-9"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Wallace, J., and Hobbs, P. (2006). Atmospheric Science: An Introductory Survey, Academic Press. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marshak, A., and Davis, A. (2005). Observing Clouds and Their Optical Properties. 3D Radiative Transfer in Cloudy Atmospheres, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/3-540-28519-9"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marshak, A., and Davis, A. (2005). Scales, Tools and Reminiscences. 3D Radiative Transfer in Cloudy Atmospheres, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/3-540-28519-9"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marshak, A., and Davis, A. (2005). Longwave Radiative Transfer in Inhomogeneous Cloud Layers. 3D Radiative Transfer in Cloudy Atmospheres, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/3-540-28519-9"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3499","DOI":"10.1175\/JAS4032.1","article-title":"The effect of cumulus cloud field anisotropy on domain-averaged solar fluxes and atmospheric heating rates","volume":"64","author":"Hinkelman","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0442(1993)006<0120:EDTCGO>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Effects due to cloud geometry on biases in the albedo derived from radiance measurements","volume":"6","author":"Kobayashi","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4206","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(1999)056<4206:EOCHOS>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Effects of Cloud Heterogeneities on Shortwave Radiation: Comparison of Cloud-Top Variability and Internal Heterogeneity","volume":"56","author":"Davies","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"DO9207","article-title":"Impact of 3D radiative effects on satellite retrievals of cloud droplet sizes","volume":"111","author":"Marshak","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"D19208","article-title":"Effects of cloud horizontal inhomogeneity and drizzle on remote sensing of cloud droplet effective radius: Case studies based on large-eddy simulations","volume":"117","author":"Zhang","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"L18809","article-title":"A global view of one-dimensional solar radiative transfer through oceanic water clouds","volume":"37","author":"Liang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4240","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2016.2538723","article-title":"Regional changes in Earth\u2019s color and texture as observed from space over a 15-year period","volume":"54","author":"Zhao","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"D08204","article-title":"Determination of three-dimensional cloud structures from high-resolution radiance data","volume":"111","author":"Zinner","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1042","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.824","article-title":"A 3D cloud-construction algorithm for the EarthCARE satellite mission","volume":"137","author":"Barker","year":"2011","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"943","DOI":"10.1002\/2013JD020683","article-title":"Effects of 3-D clouds on atmospheric transmission of solar radiation: Cloud type dependencies inferred from A-train satellite data","volume":"119","author":"Ham","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1870","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.2491","article-title":"Improving the modelling of short-wave radiation through the use of a 3D scene construction algorithm","volume":"141","author":"Ham","year":"2015","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10912","DOI":"10.1002\/2014JD021742","article-title":"A novel ensemble method for retrieving properties of warm cloud in 3-D using ground-based scanning radar and zenith radiances","volume":"119","author":"Fielding","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2491","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-8-2491-2015","article-title":"Reconstruction of cloud geometry using a scanning cloud radar","volume":"8","author":"Ewald","year":"2015","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Technol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1072","DOI":"10.1109\/36.700992","article-title":"Multi-angle Imaging SpectroRadiometer (MISR) Instrument Description and Experiment Overview","volume":"36","author":"Diner","year":"1998","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geos. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"4117","article-title":"Satellite multiangle cumulus geometry retrieval: Case study","volume":"108","author":"Kassianov","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2005.09.016","article-title":"Reconstruction of cloud geometry from multi-view satellite images","volume":"100","author":"Seiz","year":"2006","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"D04202","article-title":"Use of MISR measurements to study the radiative transfer of an isolated convective cloud: Implications for cloud optical thickness retrieval","volume":"113","author":"Cornet","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1532","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2002.801150","article-title":"Operational Retrieval of Cloud-Top Heights Using MISR Data","volume":"40","author":"Moroney","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1547","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2002.801160","article-title":"MISR Stereoscopic Image Matchers: Techniques and Results","volume":"40","author":"Muller","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Mueller, K., Moroney, C., Jovanovic, V., Garay, M.J., Muller, J.-P., Di Girolamo, L., and Davies, R. (2018, November 20). MISR Level 2 Cloud Product Algorithm Theoretical Basis, Available online: https:\/\/eospso.gsfc.nasa.gov\/atbd-category\/45."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"860","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0450(2004)043<0860:ACFVVA>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"A Cloud Fraction versus View Angle Technique for Automatic In-Scene Evaluation of the MISR Cloud Mask","volume":"43","author":"Zhao","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1739","DOI":"10.1029\/96JD02663","article-title":"Cloud fraction errors caused by finite resolution measurements","volume":"102","author":"Davies","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Jovanovic, V.M., Lewicki, S.A., Smyth, M.M., Zong, J., and Korechoff, R.P. (2018, November 20). Level 1 Georectification and Registration Algorithm Theoretical Basis, Available online: https:\/\/eospso.gsfc.nasa.gov\/atbd-category\/45."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA) (2018, November 20). Department of Defense World Geodetic System 1984, Its Definition and Relationships with Local Geodetic Systems. Available online: http:\/\/earth-info.nga.mil\/GandG\/publications\/index.html."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Diner, D.J., Di Girolamo, L., and Clothiaux, E.E. (2018, November 20). Level 1 Cloud Detection Algorithm Theoretical Basis, Available online: https:\/\/eospso.gsfc.nasa.gov\/atbd-category\/45."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Lee, B. (2017). Three-Dimensional Cloud Volume Reconstruction from the Multi-Angle Imaging SpectroRadiometer. [Maters\u2019 Thesis, University of Illinois at Urbana]. Available online: http:\/\/hdl.handle.net\/2142\/99363."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L20802","DOI":"10.1029\/2006GL027088","article-title":"Cloud fraction errors for trade wind cumuli from EOS-Terra instruments","volume":"33","author":"Zhao","year":"2006","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"D12201","article-title":"Reducing the resolution bias in cloud fraction from satellite derived clear-conservative cloud masks","volume":"117","author":"Jones","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"D10204","article-title":"Statistics on the macrophysical properties of trade wind cumuli over the tropical western Atlantic","volume":"112","author":"Zhao","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12799","DOI":"10.1029\/92JD01061","article-title":"On the determination of cloud cover from satellite sensors: The effect of sensor resolution","volume":"97","author":"Wielicki","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"D24214","article-title":"Scale effect on statistics of the macrophysical properties of trade wind cumuli over the tropical western Atlantic during RICO","volume":"113","author":"Dey","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"D04213","article-title":"Impacts of 3-D radiative transfer effects on satellite cloud detection and their consequences on cloud fraction and aerosol optical depth retrievals","volume":"113","author":"Yang","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Levis, A., Schechner, Y.Y., Aides, A., and Davis, A.B. (2015, January 7\u201313). Airborne Three-Dimensional Cloud Tomography. Proceedings of the IEEE ICCV, Santiago, Chile.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCV.2015.386"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"430","DOI":"10.1109\/36.142921","article-title":"Cumulus cloud base height estimation from high spatial resolution Landsat data: A Hough transform approach","volume":"30","author":"Berendes","year":"1992","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/10\/11\/1858\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T15:31:14Z","timestamp":1760196674000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/10\/11\/1858"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,21]]},"references-count":39,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,11]]}},"alternative-id":["rs10111858"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs10111858","relation":{"has-preprint":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.20944\/preprints201809.0442.v1","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,21]]}}}