{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,7]],"date-time":"2025-11-07T08:31:04Z","timestamp":1762504264794,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":71,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,12,14]],"date-time":"2018-12-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1544745600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Faculty of Social Sciences and Health, Durham University","award":["PhD scholarship"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PhD scholarship"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>We present a novel approach that uses remote sensing to record and reconstruct traces of ancient water management throughout the whole region of Northern Mesopotamia, an area where modern agriculture and warfare has had a severe impact on the survival of archaeological remains and their visibility in modern satellite imagery. However, analysis and interpretation of declassified stereoscopic spy satellite data from the 1960s and early 1970s revealed traces of ancient water management systems. We processed satellite imagery to facilitate image interpretation and used photogrammetry to reconstruct hydraulic pathways. Our results represent the first comprehensive map of water management features across the entirety of Northern Mesopotamia for the period ca. 1200 BC to AD 1500. In particular, this shows that irrigation was widespread throughout the region in the Early Islamic period, including within the zone traditionally regarded as \u201crain-fed\u201d. However, we found that a high proportion of the ancient canal systems had been damaged or destroyed by 20th century changes to agricultural practices and land use. Given this, there is an urgent need to record these rapidly vanishing water management systems that were an integral part of the ancient agricultural landscape and that underpinned powerful states.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10122042","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,12,14]],"date-time":"2018-12-14T12:11:08Z","timestamp":1544789468000},"page":"2042","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":18,"title":["A Remote Sensing Approach for Mapping the Development of Ancient Water Management in the Near East"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3706-4409","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Louise","family":"Rayne","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Archaeology and Ancient History, University of Leicester, Leicester LE1 7RH, UK"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9931-9083","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daniel","family":"Donoghue","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geography, Durham University, Durham DH1 3LE, UK"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,12,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1007\/s12685-010-0024-1","article-title":"Hydraulic Landscapes and Imperial Power in the near East","volume":"2","author":"Wilkinson","year":"2010","journal-title":"Water Hist."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Rayne, L. (2014). Water and Territorial Empires: The Application of Remote Sensing Techniques to Ancient Imperial Water Management in Northern Mesopotamia. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Durham]."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Schneider, U., Becker, A., Meyer-Christoffer, M., and Ziese, B. (2018, December 14). Global Precipitation Analysis Products of the Gpcc. Available online: http:\/\/www.cgd.ucar.edu\/cas\/catalog\/surface\/precip\/gpcc.html."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wilkinson, T.J. (2003). Archaeological Landscapes of the near East, University of Arizona Press.","DOI":"10.2307\/j.ctv1jf2ddx"},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Oded, B. (1979). Mass Deportations and Deportees in the Neo-Assyrian Empire, L. Reichert."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Jacobsen, T., and Lloyd, S. (1955). Sennacherib\u2019s Aqueduct at Jerwan, University of Chicago Press."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.2307\/4200384","article-title":"Nineveh, Babylon and the Hanging Gardens: Cuneiform and Classical Sources Reconciled","volume":"56","author":"Dalley","year":"1994","journal-title":"Iraq"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1017\/S0021088900001418","article-title":"Sennacherib\u2019s Northern Assyrian Canals: New Insights from Satellite Imagery and Aerial Photography","volume":"67","author":"Ur","year":"2005","journal-title":"Iraq"},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"63","article-title":"Water and Human Settlement in the Balikh Valley, Syria: Investigations from 1992\u20131995","volume":"25","author":"Wilkinson","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Field Archaeol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1179\/lev.2007.39.1.213","article-title":"Archaeology in the Land of Carchemisch: Landscape Surveys in the Area of Jerablus Tahtani, 2006","volume":"39","author":"Wilkinson","year":"2007","journal-title":"Levant"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1007\/s12685-015-0128-8","article-title":"Imperial Water Systems and Human Niche Construction in the Balikh Valley","volume":"7","author":"Rayne","year":"2015","journal-title":"Water Hist."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.2307\/1291379","article-title":"Excavations at Dibsi Faraj, Northern Syria, 1972\u20131974: A Preliminary Note on the Site and Its Monuments with an Appendix","volume":"29","author":"Harper","year":"1975","journal-title":"Dumbarton Oaks Papers"},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Berthier, S., and D\u2019Hont, O. (2003, January 17). Ressources Hydriques Et Peuplement Sur Le Moyen Euphrate, Vii\u00e8me-Xix \u00c8me Si\u00e8cle. Proceedings of the RURALIA 2003, Lyon, France."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Geyer, B., and Monchambert, J.Y. (2003). La Basse Vall\u00e9e De L\u2019euphrate Syrien Du N\u00e9olithique \u00c0 L\u2019av\u00e8nement De L\u2019islam: G\u00e9ographie, Arch\u00e9ologie Et Histoire, IFAPO."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Bessard, F., and Kennedy, H. Early Islamic Water Management in Northern Mesopotamia. Economic Integration and Social Change in the Islamic World System, 800\u20131000 Ce: The Geography and Infrastructure of Trade in Early Islam, Oxford University Press. in press."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Altaweel, M., Lawrence, D., and Philip, G. Early Islamic Water Management in the Hinterland of Raqqa. New Agendas in Remote Sensing and Landscape Archaeology in the Near East: Studies in Honor of T J Wilkinson, Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. in press."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1017\/S0021088900000152","article-title":"The Feeding of the Five Hundred Thousand: Cities and Agriculture in Early Islamic Mesopotamia","volume":"73","author":"Kennedy","year":"2011","journal-title":"Iraq"},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Perrin de Brichambaut, G., and Wall\u00e9n, C.C. (1962). Fao\/Unesco\/Wmo Interagency Project on Agroclimatology 1962, Draft General Report on a Study of Agroclimatology in Semi-Arid and Arid Zones of the Near East, FAO."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"(2018, November 11). Counting the Cost: Agriculture in Syria after Six Years of Crisis. Available online: http:\/\/www.fao.org\/emergencies\/resources\/documents\/resources-detail\/en\/c\/878213\/."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Wittfogel, K. (USA; London, UK, 1957). Oriental Despotism: A Comparative Study of Total Power, Yale University Press."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Christensen, P. (1993). The Decline of Iranshahr: Irrigation and Environments in the History of the Middle East, 500 Bc to Ad 1500, Museum Tusculanum Press."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Fisher, W.B. (1978). The Middle East: A Physical, Social and Regional Geography, Methuen. [7th ed.]. Completely Revised and Reset. ed."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Hills, E.S. (1966). Soils of Arid Lands. Arid Lands: A Gographical Appraisal, Methuen and Co. Ltd."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1011","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jas.2007.07.003","article-title":"Changing Growing Conditions for Crops During the near Eastern Bronze Age (3000\u20131200 Bc): The Stable Carbon Isotope Evidence","volume":"35","author":"Riehl","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Archaeol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1006\/qres.1997.1883","article-title":"Late Quaternary Paleoclimate in the Eastern Mediterranean Region from Stable Isotope Analysis of Speleothems at Soreq Cave, Israel","volume":"47","author":"Ayalon","year":"1997","journal-title":"Quat. Res."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1016\/j.quascirev.2015.10.004","article-title":"The Medieval Climate Anomaly and Byzantium: A Review of the Evidence on Climatic Fluctuations, Economic Performance and Societal Change","volume":"136","author":"Xoplaki","year":"2016","journal-title":"Quat. Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Stocker, T.F., Qin, D., Plattner, G.-K., Tignor, M., Allen, S.K., Boschung, J., Nauels, A., Xia, Y., Bex, V., and Midgley, P.M. (2013). Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Kamash, Z. (2010). Archaeologies of Water in the Roman near East, 63 Bc-Ad 636, Piscataway Gorgias Press."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Kamash, Z. (2007). Water Supply and Management in the Near East 63 Bc-Ad 636. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Oxford]."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1017\/S0003598X00089869","article-title":"Corona Satellite Photography: An Archaeological Application from the Middle East","volume":"76","author":"Philip","year":"2002","journal-title":"Antiquity"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1017\/S0003598X00098094","article-title":"Aerial Archaeology in Jordan","volume":"83","author":"David","year":"2009","journal-title":"Antiquity"},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Altaweel, M. (2008). The Imperial Landscape of Ashur: Settlement and Land Use in the Assyrian Heartland, OrientVerlag."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"129","article-title":"Nouvelle Prospection Archaeologique Dans La Haute Jazireh Syrienne","volume":"4","author":"Lauffray","year":"1954\u20131955","journal-title":"Les Annals Archaeologiques De Syrie"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2017.06.031","article-title":"Google Earth Engine: Planetary-Scale Geospatial Analysis for Everyone","volume":"202","author":"Gorelick","year":"2017","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Galiatsatos, N., Wilkinson, T.J., Donoghue, D.N.M., and Philip, G. (2018, December 18). The Fragile Crescent Project (Fcp): Analysis of Settlement Landscapes Using Satellite Imagery. Available online: http:\/\/dro.dur.ac.uk\/6909\/."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Comer, D.C., and Harrower, M.J. (2013). The Corona Atlas Project: Orthorectification of Corona Satellite Imagery and Regional-Scale Archaeological Exploration in the near East. Mapping Archaeological Landscapes from Space, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4614-6074-9"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Farr, T.G., Rosen, P.A., Caro, E., Crippen, R., Duren, R., Hensley, S., Kobrick, M., Paller, M., Rodriguez, E., and Roth, L. (2007). The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission. Rev. Geophys., 45.","DOI":"10.1029\/2005RG000183"},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Schmidt, M., Goossens, R., Menz, G., Altmaier, A., and Devriendt, D. (2001, January 9\u201313). The Use of Corona Satellite Images for Generating a High Resolution Digital Elevation Model. Paper Presented at the IEEE 2001 International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, Sydney, NSW, Australia."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"McGlone, J.C. (2004). The Mathematics of Photogrammetry. Manual of Photogrammetry, American Society of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Slama, C.C. (1980). Basic Mathematics of Photogrammetry. Manual of Photogrammetry, American Society of Photogrammetry."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-2716(02)00046-1","article-title":"Digital Surface Model Generation from Corona Satellite Images","volume":"56","author":"Altmaier","year":"2002","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"USGS (2018, December 18). Declassified Satellite Imagery\u20141, Available online: https:\/\/lta.cr.usgs.gov\/declass_1."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1093","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.73.9.1093","article-title":"High Resolution Elevation Data Derived from Stereoscopic Corona Imagery with Minimal Ground Control","volume":"73","author":"Galiatsatos","year":"2007","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"732","DOI":"10.1017\/S0003598X00097349","article-title":"Stereo Analysis, Dem Extraction and Orthorectification of Corona Satellite Imagery: Archaeological Applications from the near East","volume":"82","author":"Casana","year":"2008","journal-title":"Antiquity"},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Boyle, R., and Thomas, R.C. (1988). Computer Vision: A First Course, Blackwell Scientific Publications, Ltd."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Ur, J., and Wilkinson, T.J. (2008). Settlement and Economic Landscapes of Tell Beydar and Its Hinterland, Brepols."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Le Strange, G. (1905). The Lands of the Eastern Caliphate: Mesopotamia, Persia, and Central Asia, from the Moslem Conquest to the Time of Timur, Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Peltenburg, E., Wilkinson, T.J., and Wilkinson, E.B. (2016). Carchemish in Context, Oxbow Books."},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"329","article-title":"Revisiting Carchemish: The Land of Carchemish Project in Syria, 2009 and 2010","volume":"85","author":"Wilkinson","year":"2011","journal-title":"Antiquity Bull."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1017\/S0021088900000425","article-title":"Ancient Cities and Landscapes in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq: The Erbil Plain Archaeological Survey 2012 Season","volume":"75","author":"Ur","year":"2013","journal-title":"Iraq"},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Ur, J. (2010). Tell Hamoukar Volume 1: Urbanism and Cultural Landscapes in Northeastern Syria. The Tell Hamoukar Survey, 1999\u20132001, The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago."},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"1","article-title":"Campaign and Exhibition from the Euphrates in Syria","volume":"44","author":"Bounni","year":"1977","journal-title":"Annu. Am. Schools Orient. Res."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Ergenzinger, P.J., and K\u00fchne, H. (1991). Ein Regionales Bew\u00e4sserungssystem Am Habur. Die Rezente Umwelt Von Tell Sheikh Hamad Und Daten Zur Umweltrekonstruktion Der Assyrischen Stadt Dur-Katlimmu.: Berichte Aus Der Ausgrabungen Tell Sheikh Hamad\/Dur-Katlimmu, Dietrich Reimer Verlag."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Lightfoot, J.L. (2003). Lucian on the Syrian Goddess, Oxford University Press."},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"107","article-title":"Capitals and Citadels of Bronze-Iron Syria in Their Relationship to Land and Water","volume":"13","author":"Lauffray","year":"1963","journal-title":"Les Annales Archaeol. De Syrie"},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"Berthier, S. (2001). Peuplement Rural Et Am\u00e9nagements Hydroagricoles Dans La Moyenne Vall\u00e9e De L\u2019euphrate, Fin Viie-Xixe Si\u00e8cle: R\u00e9gion De Deir Ez Z\u014dr-Abu Kem\u0101l, Syrie: Mission M\u00e9sopotamie Syrienne, Arch\u00e9ologie Islamique, 1986\u20131989, Institut Fran\u00e7ais d\u2019\u00c9tudes Arabes de Damas."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Heidemann, S. (2011). The Agricultural Hinterland of Baghdad, Al-Raqqa and Samarra: Settlement Patterns in the Diyar Mudar. Le Proche-Orient de Justinien aux Abbasides. Peuplement et Dynamiques Spatiales, Actes du colloque."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"Bartl, K. (1994). Fr\u00fchislamische Besiedlung Im Bal\u012b\u1e2b-Tal, Nordsyrien, Reimer."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"Fuccaro, N. (1994). Aspects of the Social and Political History of the Yazidi Enclave of Jabal Sinjar (Iraq) under the British Mandate, 1919\u20131932, Durham University."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.1017\/S0003598X00113754","article-title":"Experiment and Innovation: Early Islamic Industry at Al-Raqqa, Syria","volume":"79","author":"Henderson","year":"2005","journal-title":"Antiquity"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1016\/0143-6228(95)00033-X","article-title":"Agricultural and Environmental Changes in the Upper Euphrates Catchment of Turkey and Syria and Their Political and Economic Implications","volume":"16","author":"Beaumont","year":"1996","journal-title":"Appl. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_62","first-page":"162","article-title":"The Second Plague Pandemic and Its Recurrences in the Middle East: 1347\u20131894","volume":"22","author":"Dols","year":"1979","journal-title":"J. Econ. Soc. Hist. Orient\/Jo. L\u2019hist. Econ. Soc. l\u2019Orient"},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"Bell, G. (1924). Amurath to Amurath, Macmillan and Co. Ltd."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.2307\/1775906","article-title":"Journeys in North Mesopotamia","volume":"30","author":"Sykes","year":"1907","journal-title":"Geogr. J."},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"Tull, K. (2017). Agriculture in Syria. K4D Helpdesk Report 133, Institute of Development Studies."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1046\/j.0031-868X.2003.00257.x","article-title":"Mathematical Modelling of Historical Reconnaissance Corona Kh-4b Imagery","volume":"19","author":"Sohn","year":"2004","journal-title":"Photogramm. Record"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"483","DOI":"10.1086\/204314","article-title":"The Structure and Dynamics of Dry-Farming States in Upper Mesopotamia","volume":"35","author":"Wilkinson","year":"1994","journal-title":"Curr. Anthropol."},{"key":"ref_68","unstructured":"Jas, R.M. (2000). Rainfall and Agriculture in Northern Mesopotamia, Nederlands Historisch-Archaeologische Instituut te Istanbul."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"452","DOI":"10.1016\/j.quageo.2015.02.016","article-title":"Luminescence Dating of Irrigation Systems: Application to a Qanat in Arag\u00f3n, Spain","volume":"30","author":"Bailiff","year":"2015","journal-title":"Quat. Geochronol."},{"key":"ref_70","unstructured":"EAMENA (2018, December 04). Eamena Database. Available online: http:\/\/eamena.arch.ox.ac.uk\/resources\/database-2\/."},{"key":"ref_71","unstructured":"Bj\u00f8rgo, E., Boccardi, G., Cunliffe, E., Fiol, M., Jellison, T., Pederson, W., and Saslow, C. (2017, October 01). Satellite-Based Damage Assessment to Cultural Heritage Sites in Syria. Available online: http:\/\/www. unitar. org\/unosat\/chs-syria."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/10\/12\/2042\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T15:34:05Z","timestamp":1760196845000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/10\/12\/2042"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,12,14]]},"references-count":71,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,12]]}},"alternative-id":["rs10122042"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs10122042","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,12,14]]}}}