{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T04:08:20Z","timestamp":1760242100772,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":35,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,12,19]],"date-time":"2018-12-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1545177600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100005416","name":"Norges Forskningsr\u00e5d","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["218784"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["218784"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100005416","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Ground-based interferometric radar systems have numerous environmental monitoring applications in geoscience. Development of a relatively simple ground-based interferometric real-aperture FMCW radar (GB-InRAR) system that can be readily deployed in field without an established set of corner reflectors will meet the present and future need for real-time monitoring of the expected increased number of geohazard events due to climate changes. Several effects affect electromagnetic waves and limit the measurement accuracy, and a careful analysis of the setup of the deployed radar system in field is essential to achieve adequate results. In this paper, we present radar measurement of a moving square trihedral corner reflector from experiments conducted in both the field and laboratory, and assess the error sources with focus on the geometry, hardware and environmental effects on interferometric and differential interferometric measurements. A theoretical model is implemented to assess deviations between theory and measurements. The main observed effects are variations in radio refractivity, multipath interference and inter-reflector interference. Measurement error due to radar hardware and the environment are analyzed, as well as how the geometry of the measurement setup affects the nominal range-cell extent. It is found that for this experiment the deviation between interferometry and differential interferometry is mainly due to variations in the radio refractivity, and temperature-induced changes in the electrical length of the microwave cables. The results show that with careful design and analysis of radar parameters and radar system geometry the measurement accuracy of a GB-InRAR system without the use of deployed corner reflectors is comparable to the accuracy of differential interferometric measurements. A GB-InRAR system can therefore be used during sudden geo-hazard events without established corner reflector infrastructure, and the results are also valid for other high-precision interferometric radar systems.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10122070","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,12,19]],"date-time":"2018-12-19T12:12:44Z","timestamp":1545221564000},"page":"2070","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Geometric, Environmental and Hardware Error Sources of a Ground-Based Interferometric Real-Aperture FMCW Radar System"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4459-0076","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rune","family":"Gundersen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Science and Technology, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, 1433 \u00c5s, Norway"},{"name":"ISPAS AS, P.O. Box 506, 1522 Moss, Norway"}]},{"given":"Richard","family":"Norland","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ISPAS AS, P.O. Box 506, 1522 Moss, Norway"}]},{"given":"Cecilie","family":"Rolstad Denby","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Science and Technology, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, 1433 \u00c5s, Norway"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,12,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Mecatti, D., Macaluso, G., Barucci, A., Noferini, L., Pieraccini, M., and Atzeni, C. (October, January 30). Monitoring open-pit quarries by interferometric radar for safety purposes. Proceedings of the 7th European Radar Conference, Paris, France."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Di Pasquale, A., Nico, G., Pitullo, A., and Prezioso, G. (2018). Monitoring strategies of earth dams by ground-based radar interferometry: How to extract useful information for seismic risk assessment. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18010244"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lukin, K., Anatoliy, M., Palamarchuk, V.P., Vyplavin, P.L., Kozhan, E., and Lukin, S. (October, January 30). Monitoring of St. Sophia Cathedral interior using Ka-band Ground Based Noise Waveform SAR. Proceedings of the 2009 European Radar Conference (EuRAD), Rome, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/IRS.2008.4585738"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, X., Lu, Z., Yang, W., Huang, M., and Tong, X. (2018). Dynamic monitoring and vibration analysis of ancient bridges by ground-based microwave interferometry and the ESMD method. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10050770"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luzi, G., Crosetto, M., and Fern\u00e1ndez, E. (2017). Radar interferometry for monitoring the vibration characteristics of buildings and civil structures: Recent case studies in Spain. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17040669"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gundersen, R., Norland, R., and Denby Rolstad, C. (2018). Ground-Based Differential interferometric radar monitoring of unstable mountain blocks in a coastal environment. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10060914"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Norland, R. (August, January 31). Differential Interferometric Radar for Mountain Rock Slide Hazard Monitoring. Proceedings of the 2006 IEEE International Symposium on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, Denver, CO, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/IGARSS.2006.846"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Norland, R. (2007, January 23\u201328). Improving Interferometric Radar Measurement Accuracy using local Meteorological Data. Proceedings of the IGARSS 2007 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, Barcelona, Spain.","DOI":"10.1109\/IGARSS.2007.4423861"},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Norland, R., and Gundersen, R. (2005). Use of radar for landslide hazard monitoring. Landslides and Avalanches: ICFL 2005 Norway: Proceedings of the 11th International Conference and Field Trip on Landslides, Norway, 1\u201310 September 2005, Taylor & Francis."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2331","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160600554975","article-title":"Advances in ground-based microwave interferometry for landslide survey: A case study","volume":"27","author":"Luzi","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.3189\/172756409787769771","article-title":"Ground-based interferometric radar for velocity and calving-rate measurements of the tidewater glacier at Kronebreen, Svalbard","volume":"50","author":"Rolstad","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ann. Glaciol."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Gundersen, R., Norland, R., and Denby Rolstad, C. (2018). Monitoring glacier flow with ground-based interferometric radar in Ny-\u00c5lesund, Svalbard. Polar Res., under review."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luzi, G., Dematteis, N., Zucca, F., Monserrat, O., Giordan, D., and Lopez Moreno, J. (2018, January 22\u201327). Terrestrial radar interferometry to monitor glaciers with complex atmospheric screen. Proceedings of the 2018 International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, Valencia, Spain.","DOI":"10.1109\/IGARSS.2018.8519008"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7547","DOI":"10.1029\/96JB03804","article-title":"Atmospheric effects in interferometric synthetic aperture radar surface deformation and topographic maps","volume":"102","author":"Zebker","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2202","DOI":"10.1109\/36.868878","article-title":"Nonlinear Subsidence Rate Estimation Using permanent scatterers in differential SAR interferometry","volume":"38","author":"Ferretti","year":"2000","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Kempes, B. (2006). Radar Interferometry, Persistent Scatterer Technique, Springer."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2454","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2004.836792","article-title":"Ground-based radar interferometry for landslides monitoring: Atmospheric and instrumental decorrelation sources on experimental data","volume":"42","author":"Luzi","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1459","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2005.848707","article-title":"Permanent scatterers analysis for atmospheric correction in ground-based SAR interferometry","volume":"43","author":"Noferini","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2007.908364","article-title":"Atmospheric artifact compensation in ground-based DInSAR applications","volume":"5","author":"Pipia","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"537","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2010.2090647","article-title":"Atmospheric phase screen in ground-based radar: Statistics and compensation","volume":"8","author":"Iannini","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lucas, C., Leinss, S., B\u00fchler, Y., Marino, A., and Hajnsek, I. (2017). Multipath interferences in ground-based radar data: A case study. Remote Sens., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9121260"},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Skolnik, M. (1990). Radar Handbook, McGraw-Hill Education. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.12693\/APhysPolA.119.553","article-title":"Temperature stability of coaxial cables","volume":"119","author":"Czuba","year":"2011","journal-title":"ACTA Phys. Pol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1431","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-017-0795-x","article-title":"On the impact of rockfall catch fences on ground-based radar interferometry","volume":"14","author":"Frukacz","year":"2017","journal-title":"Landslides"},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Frukacz, M., and Wieser, A. (2017, January 25\u201329). Terrestrial radar interferometry with objects observed through protection fences. Proceedings of the 18 Internationaler Ingenieurvermessungskurs Graz, Graz, Austria."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Gurgel, K., and Schlick, T. (2009). Remarks on Signal Processing in HF Radars Using FMCW Modulation, International Radar Symposium IRS."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Levanon, N. (1988). Radar Principles, John Wiley & Sons."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Stiles, W., and Ulaby, F. (1980). Dielectric Properties of Snow, University of Kansas."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1755","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1099-1085(199909)13:12\/13<1755::AID-HYP854>3.0.CO;2-T","article-title":"On dielectric properties of dry and wet snow","volume":"13","author":"Frolov","year":"1999","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mahafza, B.R. (2000). Radar Systems & Analysis and Design Using Matlab, Chapman & Hall.","DOI":"10.1201\/9781584888543"},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Pozar, D. (2012). Microwave Engineering, John Wiley & Sons Inc.. [4th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"ITU (2016). RECOMMENDATION ITU-R P.525-3, Calculation of Free-Space Attenuation, International Telecommunication Union."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Morchin, W. (1992). Radar Engineer\u2019s Sourcebook, Artech House Publisher."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Fosli, E. Personal communication."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1109\/TGE.1978.294586","article-title":"Microwave backscatter dependence on surface roughness, soil moisture, and soil texture: Part I-bare soil","volume":"16","author":"Ulaby","year":"1978","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Electron."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/10\/12\/2070\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T15:34:59Z","timestamp":1760196899000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/10\/12\/2070"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,12,19]]},"references-count":35,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,12]]}},"alternative-id":["rs10122070"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs10122070","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,12,19]]}}}