{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,25]],"date-time":"2026-01-25T03:19:55Z","timestamp":1769311195501,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":59,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2009,8,18]],"date-time":"2009-08-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1250553600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Accurate estimates of the magnitude and spatial distribution of both formal and informal economic activity have many useful applications. Developing alternative methods for making estimates of these economic activities may prove to be useful when other measures are of suspect accuracy or unavailable. This research explores the potential for estimating the formal and informal economy for Mexico using known relationships between the spatial patterns of nighttime satellite imagery and economic activity in the United States (U.S.). Regression models have been developed between spatial patterns of nighttime imagery and Adjusted Official Gross State Product (AGSP) for the U.S. states. These regression parameters derived from the regression models of the U.S. were \u2018blindly\u2019 applied to Mexico to estimate the Estimated Gross State Income (EGSI) at the sub-national level and the Estimated Gross Domestic Income (EGDI) at the national level. Comparison of the EGDI estimate of Mexico against the official Gross National Income (GNI) estimate suggests that the magnitude of Mexico\u2019s informal economy and the inflow of remittances are 150 percent larger than their existing official estimates in the GNI.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs1030418","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2009,8,18]],"date-time":"2009-08-18T13:51:01Z","timestamp":1250603461000},"page":"418-444","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":121,"title":["Estimation of Mexico\u2019s Informal Economy and Remittances Using Nighttime Imagery"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"1","author":[{"given":"Tilottama","family":"Ghosh","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Denver, Department of Geography, 2050 E. Iliff Ave, Denver, Colorado 80208, USA"},{"name":"Earth Observation Group, National Geophysical Data Center, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 325 Broadway, Boulder, Colorado 80305, USA"}]},{"given":"Sharolyn","family":"Anderson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Denver, Department of Geography, 2050 E. Iliff Ave, Denver, Colorado 80208, USA"}]},{"given":"Rebecca","family":"Powell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Denver, Department of Geography, 2050 E. Iliff Ave, Denver, Colorado 80208, USA"}]},{"given":"Paul","family":"Sutton","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Denver, Department of Geography, 2050 E. Iliff Ave, Denver, Colorado 80208, USA"}]},{"given":"Christopher","family":"Elvidge","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Earth Observation Group, National Geophysical Data Center, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 325 Broadway, Boulder, Colorado 80305, USA"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2009,8,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Standing, G. (1999). Global Labour Flexibility: Seeking Distributive Justice, MacMillan.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-349-27576-2"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Chen, M.A., Jhabvala, R., and Lund, F. (2002). Working Paper on the Informal Economy, Supporting Workers in the Informal Economy: A Policy Framework, International Labour Office."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Chen, M.A. (2003). Rethinking the Informal Economy, Available online: http:\/\/www.Mexico-seminar.com\/2003\/531\/531%20martha%20alter%20chen.htm."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Women in Informal Employment: Globalizing and\u00a0Organizing. Available online: http:\/\/www.wiego.org\/about_ie\/causes%20and%20consequences.php."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"International Labor Organization (ILO) (2002). Labour Overview: Latin America and the Caribbean, ILO."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02686288","article-title":"The Free-market City: Latin American Urbanization in the Years of the Neoliberal Experiment","volume":"40","author":"Portes","year":"2005","journal-title":"Stud. Comp. Int. Develop."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"290","DOI":"10.1080\/09692290600625538","article-title":"Cycling between Vice and Virtue: Assessing the Informal Sector\u2019s Awkward Role Under Neoliberal Reform","volume":"13","author":"Jonakin","year":"2006","journal-title":"Rev. Int. Pol. Econ."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"International Labor Organization (ILO) (2005). Labour Overview: Latin America and the Caribbean, ILO."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Marquez, G., Chong, A., Duryea, S., Mazza, J., and Nopo, H. (2007). Outsiders? The Changing Pattern of Exclusion in Latin America and the Caribbean, Inter-American Development Bank."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"541","DOI":"10.1080\/00330120802288743","article-title":"Informal Work and Livelihoods in Mexico: Getting By or Getting Ahead?","volume":"60","author":"Biles","year":"2008","journal-title":"Prof. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Freije, S. (2001). Informal Employment in Latin America and the Caribbean: Causes, Consequences and Policy Recommendations, Inter-American Development Bank. Available online: http:\/\/www.iadb.org\/sds\/doc\/SOCInfEmployment.pdf.","DOI":"10.18235\/0008407"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Chen, M.A. (2007). Working Paper No. 46, U.N. Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Available from: http:\/\/www.un.org\/esa\/desa\/papers\/2007\/wp46_2007.pdf."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"World Bank (2006). Trends, Determinants and Macroeconomic Effect of Remittances, Global Economic Prospects, World Bank."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/1476-072X-4-5","article-title":"From Wealth to Health: Modeling the Distribution of Income per Capita at the Sub-national Level Using Nighttime Light Imagery","volume":"4","author":"Ebener","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. J. Health Geogr."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"5","article-title":"Estimation of Gross Domestic Product at Sub-national Scales Using Nighttime Satellite Imagery","volume":"8","author":"Sutton","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Ecol. Econ. Stats."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Porter, E. China Shrinks. Available online: http:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2007\/12\/09\/opinion\/09sun4.html?_r=1&th&emc=th&oref=slogin."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/0304-3878(94)00005-0","article-title":"Improving Inter-spatial and Inter-temporal Comparability of National Accounts","volume":"44","author":"Ahmad","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Dev. Eco."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lo, C.P. (1986). Applied Remote Sensing, Longman.","DOI":"10.1080\/10106048609354071"},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"1303","article-title":"A Comparison of Nighttime Satellite Imagery and Population Density for the Continental United States","volume":"63","author":"Sutton","year":"1997","journal-title":"Photogrammteric Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Doll, C.N.H. (2008). CIESIN Thematic Guide to Night-time Light Remote Sensing and its Applications, Center for International Earth Science Information Network of Columbia University. Available online: http:\/\/sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu\/tg\/."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/0034-4257(80)90043-7","article-title":"Monitoring Urban Population and Energy Utilization Patterns from Satellite Data","volume":"9","author":"Welch","year":"1980","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"201","article-title":"Urban Area Energy Utilization Patterns from DMSP data","volume":"46","author":"Welch","year":"1980","journal-title":"Photogrammetric Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3061","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160010007015","article-title":"Census from Heaven: An Estimate of Global Human Population Using Nighttime Satellite Imagery","volume":"22","author":"Sutton","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-8306.00288","article-title":"Urban Indicators of China from Radiance Calibrated Digital DMSP-OLS Nighttime Images","volume":"92","author":"Lo","year":"2002","journal-title":"Ann. Assoc. Am. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1016\/S0198-9715(97)01005-3","article-title":"Modeling Population Density with Nighttime Satellite Imagery and GIS","volume":"21","author":"Sutton","year":"1997","journal-title":"Comput. Environ. Urban Syst."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"545","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.69.5.545","article-title":"Building and Evaluating Models to Estimate Ambient Population Density","volume":"69","author":"Sutton","year":"2003","journal-title":"Photogrammetric Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1373","DOI":"10.1080\/014311697218485","article-title":"Relation Between Satellite Observed Visible Near-infrared Emissions, Population, Economic Activity and Power Consumption","volume":"18","author":"Elvidge","year":"1997","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(97)00046-1","article-title":"A Technique for Using Composite DMSP-OLS \u201cCity Lights\u201d Satellite Data to Map Urban Area","volume":"61","author":"Imhoff","year":"1997","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1962","DOI":"10.3390\/s7091962","article-title":"Global Distribution and Density of Constructed Impervious Surfaces","volume":"7","author":"Elvidge","year":"2007","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1579\/0044-7447-29.3.157","article-title":"Nighttime Imagery as a Tool for Global Mapping of Socioeconomic Parameters and Greenhouse Gas Emissions","volume":"29","author":"Doll","year":"2000","journal-title":"Ambio"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mesev, V. (2003). Remotely Sensed Cities, Taylor and Francis.","DOI":"10.1201\/9781482264678"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.1016\/S0921-8009(02)00097-6","article-title":"Global Estimates of Market and Non-market Values Derived from Nighttime Satellite Imagery, Land Cover, and Ecosystem Service Evaluation","volume":"41","author":"Sutton","year":"2002","journal-title":"Ecol. Eco."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1080\/10106040608542382","article-title":"Mapping \"Exurbia\" in the Conterminous United States Using Nighttime Satellite Imagery","volume":"21","author":"Sutton","year":"2006","journal-title":"Geocarto. Int."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1016\/S0065-2881(01)39010-7","article-title":"Remote Sensing of the Global Lightfishing Fleet: An Analysis of Interactions with Oceanography, Other Fisheries and Predators","volume":"39","author":"Rodhouse","year":"2001","journal-title":"Adv. Marine Biol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1249","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.70.11.1249","article-title":"Exurban Change Detection in Fire-prone Areas with Nighttime Satellite Imagery","volume":"70","author":"Cova","year":"2004","journal-title":"Photogrammetric Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Mattera, P. (1985). Off the books: The Rise of the Underground Economy, St. Martin\u2019s Press."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Perspective, \u201cGoing Underground\u201d. Available online: http:\/\/www.ncpa.org\/pd\/economy\/pd122198b.html."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Losby, J.L., Else, J.F., Kingslow, M.E., Edgcomb, E.L., Malm, E.T., and Kao, V. (2002). Informal Economy Literature Review, ISED Consulting and Research: Newark, and The Aspen Institute. Available online: http:\/\/www.ised.us\/doc\/Informal%20Economy%20Lit%20Review.pdf."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"McTague, J. Going Underground: America\u2019s Shadow Economy. Available online: http:\/\/www.frontpagemag.com\/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=10024."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(98)00098-4","article-title":"Radiance Calibration of DMSP-OLS Low-light Imaging Data of Human Settlements","volume":"68","author":"Elvidge","year":"1999","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"(2000). LandScan Global Population Database, Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Available online: http:\/\/www.ornl.gov\/landscan\/."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"(2000). USA Census Bureau, USA Bureau of Economic Analysis, Available online: http:\/\/www.bea.gov\/regional\/gsp\/."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"World Bank (2002). World Development Report 2002: Building Institutions for Markets, Oxford University Press."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Population Reference Bureau. (2000). 2000 World Population Data Sheet \u2013 Demographic data and Estimates for the Countries and Regions of the World, Population Reference Bureau."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"INEGI Total de la actividad\u00a0econ\u00f3mica. Available online: http:\/\/dgcnesyp.inegi.gob.mx\/CGI-WIN\/BDIEINTSI.EXE\/NIVM1500020001000100100005# ARBOL."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"World Bank (1994b). World Development Report 1994: Infrastructure for Development, Oxford University Press."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"INEGI Sistema de Cuentas Nacionales de M\u00e9xico, Producto interno bruto,\u00a0a precios de Mercado. Available online: http:\/\/www.inegi.gob.mx\/prod_serv\/contenidos\/espanol\/bvinegi\/productos\/derivada\/cuentas\/bienes%20y%20servicios\/2004\/cbys1999-2004.pdf."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Personal Communication."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Min, B. Democracy and Light: Electoral Accountability and the Provision of Public Goods, (Unpublished Manuscript)."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"INEGI Sistema de Cuentas Nacionales de M\u00e9xico, Cuentas por Sectores Insititucionales, Cuenta Satelite del Subsector informal de los\u00a0hogares. Available online: http:\/\/www.inegi.gob.mx\/prod_serv\/contenidos\/espanol\/bvinegi\/productos\/derivada\/satelite\/hogares\/Informal2003.pdf."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Bank of Mexico Annual\u00a0Report. Available online: http:\/\/www.banxico.org.mx\/documents\/%7BBBCDBF46-1EEA-DEBF-CCDC-F61F161812FA%7D.pdf."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Nordbeck, S. (1965). The Law of Allometric Growth, Michigan Inter-University Community of Mathematical Geographers."},{"key":"ref_53","first-page":"30","article-title":"Satellite Confirmation of Settlement Size Coefficients","volume":"1","author":"Tobler","year":"1969","journal-title":"Area"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(03)00078-6","article-title":"A Scale-adjusted Measure of \u201cUrban sprawl\u201d Using Nighttime Satellite Imagery","volume":"86","author":"Sutton","year":"2003","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1257\/jel.38.1.77","article-title":"Shadow Economies: Size, Causes and Consequences","volume":"38","author":"Schneider","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Econ. Lit."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vuletin, G. (IMF Working Paper, 2008). Measuring the Informal Economy in Latin America and the Caribbean, IMF Working Paper, 08\/102.","DOI":"10.5089\/9781451869637.001"},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"INEGI Producto interno bruto por entidad federativa.\u00a0Participaci\u00f3n sectorial por entidad federative. Available from: http:\/\/www.inegi.org.mx\/inegi\/default.aspx."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"Consejo Nacional de Poblaci\u00f3n. Available from: http:\/\/www.conapo.gob.mx\/publicaciones\/desarrollo\/001.pdf."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2645","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160600981525","article-title":"The Nighsat mission concept","volume":"28","author":"Elvidge","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/1\/3\/418\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T22:10:57Z","timestamp":1760220657000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/1\/3\/418"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2009,8,18]]},"references-count":59,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2009,9]]}},"alternative-id":["rs1030418"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs1030418","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2009,8,18]]}}}