{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,20]],"date-time":"2025-12-20T22:11:12Z","timestamp":1766268672327,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":54,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,12,26]],"date-time":"2018-12-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1545782400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003566","name":"Ministry of Oceans and Fisheries","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PM60610","PM60830"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PM60610","PM60830"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003566","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Since 1995, Margalefidinium polykrikoides blooms have occurred frequently in the waters around the Korean peninsula. In the South Sea of Korea (SSK), large-scale M. polykrikoides blooms form offshore and are often transported to the coast, where they gradually accumulate. The objective of this study was to investigate the synergistic effect of multi-sensor data for identifying M. polykrikoides blooms in the SSK from July 2018 to August 2018. We found that the Spectral Shape values calculated from in situ spectra and M. polykrikoides cell abundances in the SSK were highly correlated. Comparing red tide spectra from near-coincident multi-sensor data, remote-sensing reflectance (Rrs) spectra were similar to the spectra of in situ measurements from blue to green wavelengths. Rrs true-color composite images and Spectral Shape images of each sensor showed a clear pattern of M. polykrikoides patches, although there were some limitations for detecting red tide patches in coastal areas. We confirmed the complementarity of red tide data extracted from each sensor using an integrated red tide map. Statistical assessment showed that the sensitivity of red tide detection increased when multi-sensor data were used rather than single-sensor data. These results provide useful information for the application of multi-sensor for red tide detection.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11010036","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,12,27]],"date-time":"2018-12-27T11:29:43Z","timestamp":1545910183000},"page":"36","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["Synergistic Effect of Multi-Sensor Data on the Detection of Margalefidinium polykrikoides in the South Sea of Korea"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0700-1175","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jisun","family":"Shin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Korea Ocean Satellite Center, Korea Institute of Ocean Science and Technology (KIOST), 385 Haeyang-ro, Yeongdo-gu, Busan 49111, Korea"},{"name":"Ocean Science and Technology School, KIOST-Korea Maritime and Ocean University (KMOU), 727 Taejong-ro, Yeongdo-gu, Busan 49112, Korea"}]},{"given":"Keunyong","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Korea Ocean Satellite Center, Korea Institute of Ocean Science and Technology (KIOST), 385 Haeyang-ro, Yeongdo-gu, Busan 49111, Korea"}]},{"given":"Young Baek","family":"Son","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Jeju Marine Research Section, Korea Institute of Ocean Science and Technology (KIOST), 2670 Gujwa-eup, Jeju-shi 63349, Korea"}]},{"given":"Joo-Hyung","family":"Ryu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Korea Ocean Satellite Center, Korea Institute of Ocean Science and Technology (KIOST), 385 Haeyang-ro, Yeongdo-gu, Busan 49111, Korea"},{"name":"Ocean Science and Technology School, KIOST-Korea Maritime and Ocean University (KMOU), 727 Taejong-ro, Yeongdo-gu, Busan 49112, Korea"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,12,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2011.10.012","article-title":"The globally distributed genus Alexandrium: Multifaceted roles in marine ecosystems and impacts on human health","volume":"14","author":"Anderson","year":"2012","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S131","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2013.10.012","article-title":"Economic impact, management and mitigation of red tides in Korea","volume":"30","author":"Park","year":"2013","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1016\/S1568-9883(02)00083-5","article-title":"Monitoring Karenia brevis blooms in the Gulf of Mexico using satellite ocean color imagery and other data","volume":"2","author":"Stumpf","year":"2003","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S75","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2013.10.008","article-title":"Red tides in Masan Bay, Korea in 2004\u20132005: I. Daily variations in the abundance of red-tide organisms and environmental factors","volume":"30","author":"Jeong","year":"2013","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2017.01.008","article-title":"Molecular characterization and morphology of Cochlodinium strangulatum, the type species of Cochlodinium, and Margalefidinium gen. nov. for C. polykrikoides and allied species (Gymnodiniales, Dinophyceae)","volume":"63","author":"Richlen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2013.10.002","article-title":"Monitoring and trends in harmful algal blooms and red tides in Korean coastal waters, with emphasis on Cochlodinium polykrikoides","volume":"30","author":"Lee","year":"2013","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.4490\/algae.2017.32.5.30","article-title":"Ichthyotoxic Cochlodinium polykrikoides red tides offshore in the South Sea, Korea in 2014: I. Temporal variations in three-dimensional distributions of red-tide organisms and environmental factors","volume":"32","author":"Jeong","year":"2017","journal-title":"Algae"},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"(2018, October 31). Forecast\u2219Breaking News of the National Institute of Fisheries Science (NIFS). Available online: http:\/\/www.nifs.go.kr\/redtideInfo."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"National Institute of Fisheries Science (NIFS) (2015). Harmful Algal Blooms in Korean Coastal Waters, National Institute of Fisheries Science."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2006.04.007","article-title":"Detecting the red tide algal blooms from satellite ocean color observations in optically complex Northeast-Asia Coastal waters","volume":"103","author":"Ahn","year":"2006","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"148","article-title":"Feasibility of red tide detection around Korean waters using satellite remote sensing","volume":"7","author":"Suh","year":"2004","journal-title":"Fisher Aqua. Sci."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"598","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2008.11.003","article-title":"An evaluation of remote sensing techniques for enhanced detection of the toxic dinoflagellate, Karenia brevis","volume":"113","author":"Tomlinson","year":"2009","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2014.11.004","article-title":"A novel method for discriminating Prorocentrum donghaiense from diatom blooms in the East China Sea using MODIS measurements","volume":"158","author":"Tao","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Tester, P.A., Stumpf, R.P., and Steidinger, K.A. (1998). Ocean color imagery: What is the minimum detection level for Gymnodinium breve blooms. Harmful Algae, 149\u2013151."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2004.02.014","article-title":"Evaluation of the use of SeaWiFS imagery for detecting Karenia brevis harmful algal blooms in the eastern Gulf of Mexico","volume":"91","author":"Tomlinson","year":"2004","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.7780\/kjrs.2012.28.5.6","article-title":"Monitoring red tide in South Sea of Korea (SSK) using the geostationary ocean color imager (GOCI)","volume":"28","author":"Son","year":"2012","journal-title":"Korean J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"482","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2016.07.031","article-title":"Evaluation of chlorophyll retrievals from Geostationary Ocean Color Imager (GOCI) for the North-East Asian region","volume":"184","author":"Kim","year":"2016","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2005.05.013","article-title":"Red tide detection and tracing using MODIS fluorescence data: A regional example in SW Florida coastal waters","volume":"97","author":"Hu","year":"2005","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1015","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2010.545449","article-title":"Red tide detection in the Strait of Hormuz (east of the Persian Gulf) using MODIS fluorescence data","volume":"33","author":"Moradi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2014.12.010","article-title":"Characterization of harmful algal blooms (HABs) in the Arabian Gulf and the Sea of Oman using MERIS fluorescence data","volume":"101","author":"Zhao","year":"2015","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2646","DOI":"10.4319\/lo.2006.51.6.2646","article-title":"Red and black tides: Quantitative analysis of water-leaving radiance and perceived color for phytoplankton, colored dissolved organic matter, and suspended sediments","volume":"51","author":"Dierssen","year":"2006","journal-title":"Limnol. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1007\/s10872-008-0043-z","article-title":"Optical properties of the red tide in Isahaya Bay, southwestern Japan: Influence of chlorophyll a concentration","volume":"64","author":"Sasaki","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csr.2004.04.007","article-title":"A novel technique for detection of the toxic dinoflagellate, Karenia brevis, in the Gulf of Mexico from remotely sensed ocean color data","volume":"28","author":"Cannizzaro","year":"2008","journal-title":"Cont. Shelf Res."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3665","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160802007640","article-title":"Relating spectral shape to cyanobacterial blooms in the Laurentian Great Lakes","volume":"29","author":"Wynne","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"562","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2013.09.031","article-title":"Diurnal changes of a harmful algal bloom in the East China Sea: Observations from GOCI","volume":"140","author":"Lou","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1171","DOI":"10.1016\/j.desal.2009.05.009","article-title":"Detection of Cochlodinium polykrikoides red tide based on two-stage filtering using MODIS data","volume":"249","author":"Kim","year":"2009","journal-title":"Desalination"},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"213","article-title":"A study on red tide surveillance system around the Korean coastal waters using GOCI","volume":"33","author":"Shin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Korean J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"647","DOI":"10.1007\/s10872-009-0055-3","article-title":"Detecting red tides in the eastern Seto inland sea with satellite ocean color imagery","volume":"65","author":"Takahashi","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1561","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proenv.2011.12.235","article-title":"Study on monitoring of red tide by multi-spectral remote sensing based on HJ-CCD and MODIS","volume":"11","author":"Wang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Procedia Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.7780\/kjrs.2013.29.3.6","article-title":"A comparative Study for Red Tide Detection Methods Using GOCI and MODIS","volume":"29","author":"Oh","year":"2013","journal-title":"Korean J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"377","article-title":"Red Tide Detection through Image Fusion of GOCI and Landsat OLI","volume":"34","author":"Shin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Korean J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1016\/S0015-3796(17)30778-3","article-title":"New spectrophotometric equations for determining chlorophylls a, b, c1, c2 in higher plants, algae, and natural phytoplankton","volume":"167","author":"Jeffrey","year":"1975","journal-title":"Biochem. Physiol. Pflanz."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.4490\/algae.2017.32.9.10","article-title":"An advanced tool, droplet digital PCR (ddPCR), for absolute quantification of the red-tide dinoflagellate, Cochlodinium polykrikoides Margalef (Dinophyceae)","volume":"32","author":"Lee","year":"2017","journal-title":"Algae"},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Korea Ocean Satellite Center (KOSC) (2018, October 31). Available online: http:\/\/kosc.kiost.ac.kr."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1007\/s12601-012-0024-4","article-title":"Overview of geostationary ocean color imager (GOCI) and GOCI data processing system (GDPS)","volume":"47","author":"Ryu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ocean Sci. J."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2011.07.024","article-title":"The global monitoring for environment and security (GMES) sentinel-3 mission","volume":"120","author":"Donlon","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"European Organisation for Meteorological Satellites (EUMESAT) (2018, October 31). Available online: https:\/\/coda.eumetsat.int."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"U.S. Geological Survey (2018, October 18). Available online: http:\/\/glovis.usgs.gov."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2011.08.026","article-title":"The next Landsat satellite: The Landsat data continuity mission","volume":"122","author":"Irons","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2011.11.026","article-title":"Sentinel-2: ESA\u2019s Optical High-Resolution Mission for GMES Operational Services","volume":"120","author":"Drusch","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Copernicus Open Access Hub (2018, October 31). Available online: https:\/\/scihub.copernicus.eu."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Brockmann, C., Doerffer, R., Peters, M., Kerstin, S., Embacher, S., and Ruescas, A. (2016, January 9\u201313). Evolution of the C2RCC neural network for Sentinel 2 and 3 for the retrieval of ocean colour products in normal and extreme optically complex waters. Proceedings of the Living Planet Symposium, Prague, Czech Republic."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1053","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2010.12.010","article-title":"A simple and effective method for filling gaps in Landsat ETM+ SLC-off images","volume":"115","author":"Chen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2010.07.007","article-title":"Long-term evaluation of three satellite ocean color algorithm for identifying harmful algal blooms (Karenia brevis) along the west coast of Florida: A matchup assessment","volume":"115","author":"Carvalho","year":"2011","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"785","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csr.2008.11.006","article-title":"Influences of upwelling and downwelling winds on red tide blooms dynamics in Monterey Bay, California","volume":"29","author":"Ryan","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cont. Shelf Res."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2015.09.026","article-title":"Evaluation and optimization of remote sensing techniques for detection of Karenia brevis blooms on the West Florida Shelf","volume":"170","author":"Soto","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1007442505281","article-title":"Glossary of terms","volume":"30","author":"Kohavi","year":"1998","journal-title":"Mach. Learn."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2014.08.010","article-title":"Harmful algal bloom (HAB) in the East Sea identified by the Geostationary Ocean Color Imager (GOCI)","volume":"39","author":"Choi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"47","article-title":"Inherent Optical Properties of Red Tide Algal for Ocean Color Remote Sensing Application","volume":"12","author":"Ahn","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Korean Soc. Mar. Environ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3489","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.43.003489","article-title":"Modeling the optical properties of mineral particles suspended in seawater and their influence on ocean reflectance and chlorophyll estimation from remote sensing algorithms","volume":"43","author":"Stramski","year":"2004","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7720","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.46.007720","article-title":"Potential impacts of nonalgal materials on water-leaving sun induced chlorophyll fluorescence signals in coastal waters","volume":"46","author":"McKee","year":"2007","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"C06009","DOI":"10.1029\/2005JC003115","article-title":"Vertical migration of the toxic dinoflagellate Karenia brevis and the impact on ocean optical properties","volume":"111","author":"Schofield","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Oceans"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8322","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.36.008322","article-title":"General image-quality equation: GIQE","volume":"36","author":"Leachtenauer","year":"1997","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2016.04.015","article-title":"The impact of improved signal-to-noise ratios on algorithm performance: Case studies for Landsat class instruments","volume":"185","author":"Schott","year":"2016","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/11\/1\/36\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T15:36:15Z","timestamp":1760196975000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/11\/1\/36"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,12,26]]},"references-count":54,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,1]]}},"alternative-id":["rs11010036"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs11010036","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,12,26]]}}}