{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,26]],"date-time":"2026-03-26T16:38:06Z","timestamp":1774543086454,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":88,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,1,24]],"date-time":"2019-01-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1548288000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Complex landscapes with high topographic relief and intricate geometry present challenges for complete and accurate mapping of both lateral (x, y) and vertical (z) detail without deformation. Although small uninhabited\/unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) paired with structure-from-motion (SfM) image processing has recently emerged as a popular solution for a range of mapping applications, common image acquisition and processing strategies can result in surface deformation along steep slopes within complex terrain. Incorporation of oblique (off-nadir) images into the UAV\u2013SfM workflow has been shown to reduce systematic errors within resulting models, but there has been no consensus or documentation substantiating use of particular imaging angles. To address these limitations, we examined UAV\u2013SfM models produced from image sets collected with various imaging angles (0\u201335\u00b0) within a high-relief \u2018badland\u2019 landscape and compared resulting surfaces with a reference dataset from a terrestrial laser scanner (TLS). More than 150 UAV\u2013SfM scenarios were quantitatively evaluated to assess the effects of camera tilt angle, overlap, and imaging configuration on the precision and accuracy of the reconstructed terrain. Results indicate that imaging angle has a profound impact on accuracy and precision for data acquisition with a single camera angle in topographically complex scenes. Results also confirm previous findings that supplementing nadir image blocks with oblique images in the UAV\u2013SfM workflow consistently improves spatial accuracy and precision and reduces data gaps and systematic errors in the final point cloud. Subtle differences among various oblique camera angles and imaging patterns suggest that higher overlap and higher oblique camera angles (20\u201335\u00b0) increased precision and accuracy by nearly 50% relative to nadir-only image blocks. We conclude by presenting four recommendations for incorporating oblique images and adapting flight parameters to enhance 3D mapping applications with UAV\u2013SfM in high-relief terrain.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11030239","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,1,24]],"date-time":"2019-01-24T11:12:48Z","timestamp":1548328368000},"page":"239","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":187,"title":["Enhancing UAV\u2013SfM 3D Model Accuracy in High-Relief Landscapes by Incorporating Oblique Images"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9763-1156","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paul Ryan","family":"Nesbit","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geography, University of Calgary, 2500 University Drive NW, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada"}]},{"given":"Christopher H.","family":"Hugenholtz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geography, University of Calgary, 2500 University Drive NW, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,1,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1573","DOI":"10.3390\/rs4061573","article-title":"Assessing the accuracy of georeferenced point clouds produced via multi-view stereopsis from Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) imagery","volume":"4","author":"Harwin","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1029\/2012EO250005","article-title":"Small unmanned aircraft systems for remote sensing and earth science research","volume":"93","author":"Hugenholtz","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eos Trans. 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