{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,28]],"date-time":"2026-02-28T04:29:59Z","timestamp":1772252999024,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":63,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,2,18]],"date-time":"2019-02-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1550448000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41271431"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41271431"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41801390"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41801390"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Natural Science Basic Research Plan of the Shaanxi Province of China","award":["2018JQ4009"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2018JQ4009"]}]},{"name":"the Open Topic of the Hunan Key Laboratory of Land Resources Evaluation and Utilization","award":["SYS-MT-201802"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SYS-MT-201802"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Recent open data initiatives allow free access to a vast amount of light detection and ranging (LiDAR) data in many cities. However, most open LiDAR data of cities are acquired by airborne scanning, where points on building fa\u00e7ades are sparse or even completely missing due to occlusions in the urban environment, leading to the absence of fa\u00e7ade details. This paper presents an approach for improving the LiDAR data coverage on building fa\u00e7ades by using point cloud generated from ground images. A coarse-to-fine strategy is proposed to fuse these two-point clouds of different sources with very limited overlaps. First, the fa\u00e7ade point cloud generated from ground images is leveled by adjusting the facade normal to perpendicular to the upright direction. Then leveling fa\u00e7ade point cloud is geolocated by alignment between images GPS data and their structure from motion (SfM) coordinates. Next, a modified coherent point drift algorithm with (surface) normal consistency is proposed to accurately align the fa\u00e7ade point cloud to the LiDAR data. The significance of this work resides in the use of 2D overlapping points on the building outlines instead of the limited 3D overlap between the two-point clouds. This way we can still achieve reliable and precise registration under incomplete coverage and ambiguous correspondence. Experiments show that the proposed approach can significantly improve the fa\u00e7ade details in open LiDAR data, and achieve 2 to 10 times higher registration accuracy, when compared to classic registration methods.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11040420","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,2,19]],"date-time":"2019-02-19T04:08:20Z","timestamp":1550549300000},"page":"420","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Improving Details of Building Fa\u00e7ades in Open LiDAR Data Using Ground Images"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8589-5637","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shenman","family":"Zhang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Remote Sensing and Information Engineering, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430079, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5011-9446","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pengjie","family":"Tao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Remote Sensing and Information Engineering, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430079, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Lei","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory for Information Engineering in Surveying, Mapping and Remote Sensing, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430079, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5853-1515","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yaolin","family":"Hou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Remote Sensing and Information Engineering, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430079, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zhihua","family":"Hu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Remote Sensing and Information Engineering, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430079, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,2,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2018, October 14). NYC Open Data, Available online: https:\/\/opendata.cityofnewyork.us\/."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"(2018, October 14). Open Data DC, Available online: http:\/\/opendata.dc.gov\/."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"(2018, October 14). Open Data of Canada. Available online: https:\/\/open.canada.ca\/en\/open-data."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"INSPIRE Directive (2007). Directive 2007\/2\/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 14 March 2007 establishing an Infrastructure for Spatial Information in the European Community (INSPIRE). Off. J. Eur. Union, L 108, 1\u201314."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"(2018, October 14). European Data Portal. Available online: https:\/\/data.europa.eu."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"(2018, October 14). Scottish Remote Sensing Portal, Available online: https:\/\/remotesensingdata.gov.scot\/."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"(2018, October 14). Open NRW. Available online: https:\/\/open.nrw\/open-data\/."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.5194\/isprs-archives-XLII-2-559-2018","article-title":"Evaluation of Gmsh Meshing Algorithms in Preparation of High-Resolution Wind Speed Simulations in Urban Areas","volume":"42","author":"Langheinrich","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kersting, N. (2018). Open Data, Open Government und Online Partizipation in der Smart City. Vom Informationsobjekt \u00fcber den deliberativen Turn zur Algorithmokratie?. Staat, Internet und Digitale Gouvernementalit\u00e4t, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-658-18271-7_5"},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"21","article-title":"Designing semantic application programming interfaces for open government data","volume":"8","author":"Degbelo","year":"2016","journal-title":"eJ. eDemocr. Open Gov."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luebke, D., Reddy, M., Cohen, J.D., Varshney, A., Watson, B., and Huebner, R. (2002). Level of Detail for 3D Graphics: Application and Theory, Morgan Kaufmann.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-155860838-2\/50003-0"},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"763","article-title":"Automatic stereo plotting","volume":"25","author":"Hobrough","year":"1959","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schenk, T. (1997). Towards automatic aerial triangulation. ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-2716(97)00007-5"},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"198","article-title":"Direct Georeferencing Using Gps\/Inertial Exterior Orientations for Photogrammetric Applications","volume":"33","author":"Cramer","year":"2000","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Krupnik, A. (1994). Multiple-Patch Matching in the Object Space for Aerotriangulation. [Ph.D. Thesis, The Ohio State University]."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Agarwal, S., Snavely, N., Simon, I., Seitz, S.M., and Szeliski, R. (October, January 29). Building Rome in a day. Proceedings of the 2009 IEEE 12th International Conference on Computer Vision, Kyoto, Japan.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCV.2009.5459148"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gmod.2011.11.001","article-title":"Sorting unorganized photo sets for urban reconstruction","volume":"74","author":"Wan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Graph. Models"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Simon, I., Snavely, N., and Seitz, S.M. (2007, January 14\u201321). Scene Summarization for Online Image Collections. Proceedings of the 11th IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCV.2007.4408863"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2006.01.001","article-title":"Multi-image matching for DSM generation from IKONOS imagery","volume":"60","author":"Zhang","year":"2006","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"328","DOI":"10.1109\/TPAMI.2007.1166","article-title":"Stereo processing by semiglobal matching and mutual information","volume":"30","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1362","DOI":"10.1109\/TPAMI.2009.161","article-title":"Accurate, dense, and robust multiview stereopsis","volume":"32","author":"Furukawa","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"889","DOI":"10.1109\/TPAMI.2011.172","article-title":"High accuracy and visibility-consistent dense multiview stereo","volume":"34","author":"Vu","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schonberger, J.L., and Frahm, J.-M. (July, January 26). Structure-from-Motion Revisited. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR), Las Vegas, NV, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR.2016.445"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moulon, P., Monasse, P., Perrot, R., and Marlet, R. (2016). OpenMVG: Open multiple view geometry. International Workshop on Reproducible Research in Pattern Recognition, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-56414-2_5"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, C. (July, January 29). Towards Linear-Time Incremental Structure from Motion. Proceedings of the 2013 International Conference on 3D Vision\u20143DV, Seattle, WA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/3DV.2013.25"},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"B\u00f6hm, J., and Haala, N. (2005, January 12\u201314). Efficient integration of aerial and terrestrial laser data for virtual city modeling using lasermaps. Proceedings of the ISPRS Workshop Laser Scanning 2005, Enschede, The Netherlands."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1109\/34.121791","article-title":"A Method for Registration of 3-D Shapes","volume":"14","author":"Besl","year":"1992","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"239","article-title":"Reconstruction of 3D Vector Models of Buildings by Combination of Als, Tls and Vls Data","volume":"XXXVIII-5\/W16","author":"Boulaassal","year":"2012","journal-title":"ISPRS Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Muenkel, C., Leiterer, U., and Dier, H.D. (1999, January 14\u201318). Scanning the troposphere with a low-cost eye-safe lidar. Proceedings of the Environmental Sensing and Applications, Munich, Germany."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"M\u00fcnkel, C., Emeis, S., Sch\u00e4fer, K., and Br\u00fcmmer, B. (September, January 31). Improved near-range performance of a low-cost one lens lidar scanning the boundary layer. Proceedings of the Remote Sensing of Clouds and the Atmosphere XIV, Berlin, Germany."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.4028\/www.scientific.net\/AMM.841.198","article-title":"Indoor Mapping Using Low Cost LIDAR Based Systems","volume":"841","author":"Predoi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Mech. Mater."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Shan, Q., Wu, C., Curless, B., Furukawa, Y., Hernandez, C., and Seitz, S.M. (2014, January 8\u201311). Accurate geo-registration by ground-to-aerial image matching. Proceedings of the 2014 2nd International Conference on 3D Vision, Tokyo, Japan."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"355","article-title":"Integration of Laser Scanning and Photogrammetry","volume":"XXXVI-3\/W5","author":"Honkavaara","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Becker, S., and Haala, N. (2007, January 12\u201314). Combined feature extraction for facade reconstruction. Proceedings of the ISPRS Workshop on Laser Scanning 2007 and SilviLaser 2007, Espoo, Finlan."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gonz\u00e1lez-Aguilera, D., Rodr\u00edguez-Gonz\u00e1lvez, P., and G\u00f3mez-Lahoz, J. (2009). An automatic procedure for co-registration of terrestrial laser scanners and digital cameras. ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2008.10.002"},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"63","article-title":"Registration of Laser Scanning Point Clouds and Aerial Images Using Either Artifical or Natuarl Tie Featurs","volume":"3","year":"2012","journal-title":"ISPRS Ann. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1006\/cviu.2002.0963","article-title":"Geometry and texture recovery of scenes of large scale","volume":"88","author":"Stamos","year":"2002","journal-title":"Comput. Vis. Image Underst."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Inglot, A., and Tysiac, P. (2017, January 22\u201325). Airborne Laser Scanning Point Cloud Update by Used of the Terrestrial Laser Scanning and the Low-Level Aerial Photogrammetry. Proceedings of the 2017 Baltic Geodetic Congress (BGC Geomatics), Gdansk, Poland.","DOI":"10.1109\/BGC.Geomatics.2017.75"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Klapa, P., Mitka, B., and Zygmunt, M. (2017). Application of Integrated Photogrammetric and Terrestrial Laser Scanning Data to Cultural Heritage Surveying. IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci., 95.","DOI":"10.1088\/1755-1315\/95\/3\/032007"},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"B\u00f6hm, J., Becker, S., and Haala, N. (2007, January 12\u201313). Model refinement by integrated processing of laser scanning and photogrammetry. Proceedings of the Proceedings of 2nd International workshop on 3D Virtual Reconstruction and Visualization of Complex Architectures (3D-Arch), Zurich, Switzerland."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mastin, A., Kepner, J., and Fisher, J. (2009, January 20\u201325). Automatic registration of LIDAR and optical images of urban scenes. Proceedings of the 2009 IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition Workshops, CVPR Workshops 2009, Miami, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR.2009.5206539"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, L., and Neumann, U. (2009, January 20\u201325). A robust approach for automatic registration of aerial images with untextured aerial LiDAR data. Proceedings of the 2009 IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition Workshops, CVPR Workshops 2009, Miami, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR.2009.5206600"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"712","DOI":"10.1109\/42.796284","article-title":"Nonrigid registration using free-form deformations: Application to breast MR images","volume":"18","author":"Rueckert","year":"1999","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Med. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1109\/MCG.2004.1318815","article-title":"Detailed 3D reconstruction of large-scale heritage sites with integrated techniques","volume":"24","author":"Beraldin","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Comput. Graph. Appl."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Goshtasby, A.A. (2005). 2-D and 3-D Image Registration: For Medical, Remote Sensing, and Industrial Applications, John Wiley & Sons.","DOI":"10.1002\/0471724270"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2262","DOI":"10.1109\/TPAMI.2010.46","article-title":"Point set registration: Coherent point drifts","volume":"32","author":"Myronenko","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jvcir.2017.03.012","article-title":"Recent developments and trends in point set registration methods","volume":"46","author":"Maiseli","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Vis. Commun. Image Represent."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2015.12.005","article-title":"Automatic registration of large-scale urban scene point clouds based on semantic feature points","volume":"113","author":"Yang","year":"2016","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gold, S., Rangarajan, A., Lu, C.P., Pappu, S., and Mjolsness, E. (1998). New algorithms for 2D and 3D point matching: Pose estimation and correspondence. Pattern Recognit.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0031-3203(98)80010-1"},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Baba, B.J., and Vemuri, C. (2005, January 17\u201321). A robust algorithm for point set registration using mixture of Gaussians. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision, Beijing, China."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Brun, A., and Westin, C. (2004). Robust Generalized Total Least Squares. Miccai, 234\u2013241."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1016\/j.imavis.2004.05.007","article-title":"Robust Euclidean alignment of 3D point sets: The trimmed iterative closest point algorithm","volume":"23","author":"Chetverikov","year":"2005","journal-title":"Image Vis. Comput."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1379","DOI":"10.1109\/TMI.2003.819276","article-title":"The dual-bootstrap iterative closest point algorithm with application to retinal image registration","volume":"22","author":"Stewart","year":"2003","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Med. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2041","DOI":"10.1016\/S0031-3203(03)00050-5","article-title":"Robust matching of 3D contours using iterative closest point algorithm improved by M-estimation","volume":"36","author":"Kaneko","year":"2003","journal-title":"Pattern Recognit."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Campbell, D., and Petersson, L. (2015, January 7\u201313). An adaptive data representation for robust point-set registration and merging. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV), Santiago, Chile.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCV.2015.488"},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"Yang, C., and Medioni, G. (1992). Object modelling by registration of multiple range images. Image Vis. Comput."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1145\/358669.358692","article-title":"Random sample consensus: A paradigm for model fitting with applications to image analysis and automated cartography","volume":"24","author":"Fischler","year":"1981","journal-title":"Commun. ACM"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zandbergen, P.A., and Barbeau, S.J. (2011). Positional accuracy of assisted GPS data from high-sensitivity GPS-enabled mobile phones. J. Navig.","DOI":"10.1017\/S0373463311000051"},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"(2018, October 14). GPS Accuracy, Available online: https:\/\/www.gps.gov\/systems\/gps\/performance\/accuracy\/."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1145\/174462.156635","article-title":"Three-dimensional alpha shapes","volume":"13","author":"Edelsbrunner","year":"1994","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Graph."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.5194\/isprsannals-II-3-W4-135-2015","article-title":"ISPRS Benchmark for multi-platform photogrammetry","volume":"2","author":"Nex","year":"2015","journal-title":"ISPRS Ann. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_62","first-page":"655","article-title":"The Three-Dimensional Normal-Distributions Transform\u2014An Efficient Representation for Registration, Surface Analysis, and Loop Detection","volume":"28","author":"Magnusson","year":"2009","journal-title":"Renew. Energy"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1145\/2487228.2487237","article-title":"Screened poisson surface reconstruction","volume":"32","author":"Kazhdan","year":"2013","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Graph."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/11\/4\/420\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T12:32:59Z","timestamp":1760185979000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/11\/4\/420"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,2,18]]},"references-count":63,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,2]]}},"alternative-id":["rs11040420"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs11040420","relation":{"has-preprint":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.20944\/preprints201810.0354.v1","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,2,18]]}}}