{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,21]],"date-time":"2026-03-21T17:48:26Z","timestamp":1774115306010,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":38,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,3,11]],"date-time":"2019-03-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1552262400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"The Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["41874005"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41874005"]}]},{"name":"The Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["41731066"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41731066"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Artificial lands or islands reclaimed from the sea due to their vast land spaces and air are suitable for the construction of airports, harbors, and industrial parks, which are convenient for human and cargo transportation. However, the settlement process of reclamation foundation is a problem of public concern, including soil consolidation and water recharge. Xiamen New Airport, one of the largest international airports in China, has been under construction on marine reclamation land for three years. At present, the airport has reached the second phase of construction, occupying 15.33 km2. The project will last about twenty years. To investigate the temporal and spatial evolution of ground settlement associated with land reclamation, Sentinel-1 synthetic aperture radar (SAR) data, including intensity images and phase measurements, were considered. A total of 82 SAR images acquired by C-band Sentinel-1 satellite covering the time period from August 2015 to October 2018 were collected. First, the spatial evolution process of land reclamation was analyzed by exploring the time series of SAR image intensity maps. Then, the small baseline subset InSAR (SBAS\u2013InSAR) technique was used to retrieve ground deformation information over the past three years for the first time since land reclamation. Results suggest that the reclaimed land experienced remarkable subsidence, especially after the second phase of land reclamation. Furthermore, 26 ground settlement areas (i.e., 0.015% of the whole area) associated with land reclamation were uncovered over an area of more than 1200 km2 of the Xiamen coastal area from January 2017 to October 2018. This study offers important guidance for the next phase of land reclamation and the future construction of Xiamen New Airport.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11050585","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,3,12]],"date-time":"2019-03-12T03:49:31Z","timestamp":1552362571000},"page":"585","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":47,"title":["Characterizing and Monitoring Ground Settlement of Marine Reclamation Land of Xiamen New Airport, China with Sentinel-1 SAR Datasets"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Xiaojie","family":"Liu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geology Engineering and Geomatics, Chang\u2019an University, Xi\u2019an 710054, China"}]},{"given":"Chaoying","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geology Engineering and Geomatics, Chang\u2019an University, Xi\u2019an 710054, China"},{"name":"National Administration of Surveying, Mapping and Geoinformation, Engineering Research Center of National Geographic Conditions Monitoring, Xi\u2019an 710054, China"},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Geo-Information Engineering, Xi\u2019an 710054, China"}]},{"given":"Qin","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geology Engineering and Geomatics, Chang\u2019an University, Xi\u2019an 710054, China"},{"name":"National Administration of Surveying, Mapping and Geoinformation, Engineering Research Center of National Geographic Conditions Monitoring, Xi\u2019an 710054, China"},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Geo-Information Engineering, Xi\u2019an 710054, China"}]},{"given":"Chengsheng","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geology Engineering and Geomatics, Chang\u2019an University, Xi\u2019an 710054, China"},{"name":"National Administration of Surveying, Mapping and Geoinformation, Engineering Research Center of National Geographic Conditions Monitoring, Xi\u2019an 710054, China"},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Geo-Information Engineering, Xi\u2019an 710054, China"}]},{"given":"Jing","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geology Engineering and Geomatics, Chang\u2019an University, Xi\u2019an 710054, China"},{"name":"National Administration of Surveying, Mapping and Geoinformation, Engineering Research Center of National Geographic Conditions Monitoring, Xi\u2019an 710054, China"},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Geo-Information Engineering, Xi\u2019an 710054, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,3,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Wali, M.K. (1975). Practices and Problems of Land Reclamation in Western North America, University of North Dakota Press."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1016\/S0969-6997(02)00082-0","article-title":"Airport construction: Materials use and geomorphic change","volume":"9","author":"Douglas","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Air Trans. Manag."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1016\/0013-7952(94)90078-7","article-title":"Environmental impact assessment on land reclamation projects in the Netherlands: A case history","volume":"37","author":"Claessen","year":"1994","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1016\/S0025-326X(02)00405-8","article-title":"Economic and geographic backgrounds of land reclamation in Japanese ports","volume":"47","author":"Suzuki","year":"2003","journal-title":"Mar. Pollut. Bull."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1763","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2015.2402168","article-title":"A DInSAR Investigation of the Ground settlement Time Evolution of Ocean-Reclaimed Lands in Shanghai","volume":"8","author":"Zhao","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1007\/s10750-008-9453-6","article-title":"Recent evolution of fishery and land reclamation in curonian and lesina lagoons","volume":"611","author":"Breber","year":"2008","journal-title":"Hydrobiologia"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, M.S., Yang, T.L., Zhang, L., Lin, J.X., Qin, X.Q., and Liao, M.S. (2018). Spatial-Temporal Characterization of a Reclamation Settlement in the Shanghai Coastal Area with Time Series Analyses of X-, C-, and L-band SAR datasets. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10020329"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pepe, A., Bonano, M., Zhao, Q., Yang, T.L., and Wang, H.M. (2016). The Use of C-\/X-Band Time-Gapped SAR data and Geotechnical Models for the Study of Shanghai\u2019s Ocean-Reclaimed Lands through the SBAS-DInSAR Technique. Remote Sens., 8.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints201608.0083.v1"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baek, W.K., Jung, H.S., Jo, M.J., Lee, W.J., and Zhang, L. (2018). Ground settlement observation of solid waste landfill park using multi-temporal radar interferometry. Int. J. Urban Sci., 1\u201316.","DOI":"10.1080\/12265934.2018.1468275"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2009.11.005","article-title":"Integrated analysis of SAR interferometric and geological data for investigating long-term reclamation settlement of Chek lap KoK Airport, Hong Kong","volume":"110","author":"Jiang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yu, L., Yang, T.L., Zhao, Q., Liu, M., and Pepe, A. (2017). The 2016-2016 ground displacements of the Shanghai coastal area inferred a combined COSMO-SkyMed\/Sentinel-1 DInSAR analysis. Remote Sens., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9111194"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, P., Chen, X.F., Li, Z.H., Zhang, Z.G., Xu, J.K., Feng, W.P., Wang, C.S., Hu, Z.W., Tu, W., and Li, H.Z. (2018). Resolving surface displacements in Shenzhen of China from time series InSAR. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10071162"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aslan, G., Cak\u0131r, Z., Ergintav, S., Lassere, G., and Renard, R. (2018). Analysis of secular ground motions in Istanbul from a long-term InSAR time series (1992\u20132017). Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10030408"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"950","DOI":"10.1109\/36.175330","article-title":"Decorrelation in interferometric radar echoes","volume":"30","author":"Zebker","year":"1992","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2220","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2015.2497902","article-title":"Interferometric Processing of Sentinel-1 TOPS Data","volume":"54","author":"Gonzalez","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, B., Feng, G.C., Li, Z.W., Wang, Q.J., Wang, C.C., and Xie, R.G. (2016). Coastal subsidence monitoring associated with land reclamation using the point target based on SBAS-InSAR method: A case study of Shenzhen, China. Remote Sens., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8080652"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2375","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2002.803792","article-title":"A new algorithm for surface deformation monitoring based on small baseline differential SAR interferograms","volume":"40","author":"Berardino","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2243","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2003.814657","article-title":"Linear and nonlinear terrain deformation maps from a reduced set of interferometric SAR images","volume":"41","author":"Mora","year":"2003","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"753","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2003.810675","article-title":"A least squares database approach for SAR interferometric data","volume":"41","author":"Usai","year":"2003","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1109\/36.898661","article-title":"Permanent scatterers in SAR interferometry","volume":"39","author":"Ferretti","year":"2001","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Kampes, B.M. (2006). Radar Interferometry: Persistent Scatterer Technique, Springer."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L23611","DOI":"10.1029\/2004GL021737","article-title":"A new method for measuring deformation on volcanoes and other natural terrains using InSAR persistent scatterers","volume":"31","author":"Hooper","year":"2004","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"(2018, November 16). Xiang\u2019an, Xiamen City, International Airport. Available online: https:\/\/baike.baidu.com\/item\/%E5%8E%A6%E9%97%A8%E7%BF%94%E5%AE%89%E5%9B%BD%E9%99%85%E6%9C%BA%E5%9C%BA\/3898600?fr=aladdin."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Werner, C., Wegm\u00fcller, U., Strozzi, T., and Wiesmann, A. (2000, January 16\u201320). GAMMA SAR and interferometric processing software. Proceedings of the ERS-Envisat Symposium, Gothenburg, Sweden."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"230","article-title":"Mexico City land subsidence in 2014-2015 with Sentinel-1 IW TOPS: Results using the Intermittent SBAS (ISBAS) technique","volume":"52","author":"Sowter","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2179","DOI":"10.1109\/36.868876","article-title":"Coregistration of interferometric SAR images using spectral diversity","volume":"38","author":"Scheiber","year":"2000","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1213","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2014.2336237","article-title":"Fast Statistically Homogeneous Pixel Selection for Covariance Matrix Estimation for Multitemporal InSAR","volume":"53","author":"Jiang","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3611","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2017.2677260","article-title":"Application of Multitemporal InSAR Covariance and Information Fusion to Robust Road Extraction","volume":"55","author":"Jiang","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4035","DOI":"10.1029\/1998GL900033","article-title":"Radar interferogram filtering for geophysical applications","volume":"21","author":"Goldstein","year":"1998","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jog.2018.01.016","article-title":"Complex surface deformation monitoring and mechanism inversion over Qingxu-Jiaocheng, China with multi-sensor SAR images","volume":"114","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Geodyn."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"813","DOI":"10.1109\/36.673674","article-title":"A novel phase unwrapping method based on network programming","volume":"36","author":"Costantini","year":"1998","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kang, Y., Zhao, C.Y., Zhang, Q., Lu, Z., and Li, B. (2017). Application of InSAR Techniques to an analysis of the Guanling Landslide. Remote Sens., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9101046"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, X.J., Zhao, C.Y., Zhang, Q., Peng, J.B., Zhu, W., and Lu, Z. (2018). Multi-Temporal Loess Landslide Inventory Mapping with C-, X- and L-Band SAR Datasets\u2014A Case Study of Heifangtai Loess Landslides, China. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10111756"},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Liao, M.S., and Wang, T. (2014). Time Series InSAR Technique and Application, Science Press. (In Chinese)."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"1119","article-title":"InSAR reveals coastal subsidence in the Pearl River Delta","volume":"191","author":"Wang","year":"2012","journal-title":"China Geophys. J. Int."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Terzaghi, K., Peck, R.B., and Mesri, G. (1996). Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice, John Wiley and Sons."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Plant, G.W., Covil, C.S., and Hughes, R.A. (1998). Site Preparation for the New Hong Kong International Airport\u2014The Design, Construction and Performance of the Airport Platform, Thomas Telford."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1680\/igeng.1998.30712","article-title":"Settlement of reclaimed land for the new Hong Kong International Airport","volume":"131","author":"Pickles","year":"1998","journal-title":"Proc. ICE Geotech. Eng."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/11\/5\/585\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T12:37:48Z","timestamp":1760186268000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/11\/5\/585"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,3,11]]},"references-count":38,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,3]]}},"alternative-id":["rs11050585"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs11050585","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,3,11]]}}}