{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,1]],"date-time":"2026-08-01T18:45:17Z","timestamp":1785609917608,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,3,19]],"date-time":"2019-03-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1552953600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41874005, 41731066 and 41772365"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41874005, 41731066 and 41772365"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"the Special Project granted by the China Earthquake Administration","award":["2018010103"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2018010103"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The ancient city of Xi\u2019an, China, has been suffering severe land subsidence and ground fissure hazards since the 1960s, mainly due to the over-withdrawal of groundwater and large-scale urban construction. This has threatened and will continue to threaten the stability of urban infrastructure, such as the construction and operation of high buildings and subway lines. It is necessary to map the spatiotemporal variations of land subsidence over Xi\u2019an, and to analyze their causes and the correlation with underground water level changes and ground fissure deformation. Time series of land subsidence were observed with the interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) technique, using multi-sensor SAR datasets from 2012 to 2018. Four land subsidence rate maps over Xi\u2019an city were retrieved from TerraSAR-X, ALOS\/PALSAR2, and Sentinel-1 data, each with different tracks. The InSAR derived results were then cross-validated with three independent SAR data stacks, and calibrated with GPS and leveling observations. Next, the spatiotemporal evolutions of three main regional land subsidence zones were quantitatively analyzed in detail, and the surface deformation of the Xi\u2019an subway network was spatially analyzed. Third, the correlations between land subsidence and ground water withdrawal, ground fissure deformation, landforms, and faults were intensively analyzed. Finally, a flat lying sill model with distributed contractions was implemented to model the InSAR deformation over one typical subsidence zone, which further suggested that the ground deformation was mainly caused by groundwater withdrawal. This systematic research can provide sound evidence to serve decision-making for land subsidence mitigation in Xi\u2019an, and may also guide land subsidence research in other cities.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11060664","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,3,19]],"date-time":"2019-03-19T12:12:25Z","timestamp":1552997545000},"page":"664","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":36,"title":["Research on Spatiotemporal Land Deformation (2012\u20132018) over Xi\u2019an, China, with Multi-Sensor SAR Datasets"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4521-2109","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mimi","family":"Peng","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geology Engineering and Geomatics, Chang\u2019an University, Xi\u2019an 710054, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5730-9602","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chaoying","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geology Engineering and Geomatics, Chang\u2019an University, Xi\u2019an 710054, China"},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Geo-Information Engineering, Xi\u2019an 710054, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qin","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geology Engineering and Geomatics, Chang\u2019an University, Xi\u2019an 710054, China"},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Geo-Information Engineering, Xi\u2019an 710054, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9181-1818","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhong","family":"Lu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Roy M. Huffington Department of Earth Sciences, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, TX 75275, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhongsheng","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geology Engineering and Geomatics, Chang\u2019an University, Xi\u2019an 710054, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,3,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"433","article-title":"Some key questions in the formation of ground fissures in the Fen-Wei Basin","volume":"15","author":"Peng","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"11","article-title":"The structural features and the genetic mechanism of the surface crack belt in Xi\u2019an, Shanxi Province","volume":"4","author":"Zhang","year":"1986","journal-title":"Geol. Shaanxi"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Peng, J.B. (2012). Geohazards of Xi\u2019an Ground Fissures, Science Press. (In Chinese)."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Wan, W.F. (2008). Numerical Simulation of Land Subsidence Due to Groundwater Withdraw in Xi\u2019an and Its Prevention Schemes. [Ph.D. Thesis, Chang\u2019an University]. (In Chinese)."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"366","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2014.09.008","article-title":"Land subsidence and ground fissures in Xi\u2019an, China 2005\u20132012 revealed by multi-band InSAR time-series analysis","volume":"155","author":"Qu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Chang\u2019an University (2009). Monitoring Land Subsidence and Ground Fissures over Fenwei Basin by Using InSAR and GPS Techniques, Chang\u2019an University. (In Chinese)."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Chang\u2019an University (2009). Thematic Study of the Monitoring and Control of the Land Subsidence and Ground Fissure in Fenwei Basin, Chang\u2019an University. (In Chinese)."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Chang\u2019an University (2012). Monitoring Land Subsidence and Ground Fissures over Fenwei Basin by using InSAR and GPS Techniques, Chang\u2019an University. (In Chinese)."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"18","article-title":"The tectonic deformation and segmented features of Lintong\u2013Chang\u2019an fracture zone","volume":"17","author":"Zhu","year":"2005","journal-title":"Earthq. Res. Plateau"},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"1214","article-title":"Research on recent characteristics of spatial-temporal evolution and mechanism of Xi\u2019an land subsidence and ground fissure by using GPS and InSAR techniques","volume":"52","author":"Zhang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Chin. J. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"27","article-title":"Analysis on the origin of land subsidence and its countermeasures of control in Xi\u2019an","volume":"119","author":"Yan","year":"1998","journal-title":"Chin. J. Geol. Hazard Control"},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"56","article-title":"Comprehensive analysis and study of crustal deformation in Guanzhong area","volume":"26","author":"Zhu","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Geod. Geodyn."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1428","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2003.811553","article-title":"Lava volume from the 1997 eruption of Okmok volcano, Alaska, estimated from spaceborne and airborne interferometric synthetic aperture radar","volume":"41","author":"Lu","year":"2003","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1038\/364138a0","article-title":"The displacement field of the Landers earthquake mapped by radar interferometry","volume":"364","author":"Massonnet","year":"1993","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kang, Y., Zhao, C.Y., Zhang, Q., Lu, Z., and Li, B. (2017). Application of InSAR techniques to an analysis of the Guanling landslide. Remote Sens., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9101046"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1109\/36.898661","article-title":"Permanent scatterers in SAR interferometry","volume":"39","author":"Ferretti","year":"2001","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2375","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2002.803792","article-title":"A new algorithm for surface deformation monitoring based on small baseline differential SAR interferograms","volume":"40","author":"Berardino","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1377","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2004.828196","article-title":"A small-baseline approach for investigating deformations on full-resolution differential SAR interferograms","volume":"42","author":"Lanari","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2010.10.004","article-title":"Ground settlement monitoring based on temporarily coherent points between two SAR acquisitions","volume":"66","author":"Zhang","year":"2011","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogram. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2011.2160644","article-title":"Repeat-pass SAR interferometry with partially coherent targets","volume":"50","author":"Perissin","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens"},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"4362","article-title":"Interferometric point target analysis for deformation mapping","volume":"7","author":"Werner","year":"2003","journal-title":"IEEE Int. Geosci. Remote Sens. Symp."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"249","article-title":"The application of the Intermittent SBAS (ISBAS) InSAR method to the South Wales Coalfield, UK","volume":"34","author":"Bateson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"808","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2016.1259674","article-title":"Characterization and causes of land subsidence in Beijing, China","volume":"38","author":"Chen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"677","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-013-2990-y","article-title":"Time-series analysis of subsidence associated with rapid urbanization in Shanghai, China measured with SBAS InSAR method","volume":"72","author":"Dong","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bai, L., Jiang, L.M., Wang, H., and Sun, Q. (2016). Spatiotemporal Characterization of Land Subsidence and Uplift (2009\u20132010) over Wuhan in Central China Revealed by TerraSAR-X InSAR Analysis. Remote Sens., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8040350"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1509","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2018.2802702","article-title":"Land subsidence in Taiyuan, China, monitored by InSAR technique with multisensor SAR datasets from 1992 to 2015","volume":"11","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"102","article-title":"Land subsidence in major cities of Central Mexico: Interpreting InSAR-derived land subsidence mapping with hydrogeological data","volume":"47","author":"Castellazzi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.2495\/ECO110071","article-title":"Unsustainable Use of Groundwater Resources in Agricultural and Urban Areas: A Persistent Scatterer Study of Land Subsidence at the Basin Scale","volume":"144","author":"Righini","year":"2011","journal-title":"WIT Trans. Ecol. Environ."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Solari, L., Ciampalini, A., Raspini, F., Bianchini, S., Zinno, I., Bonano, M., Manunta, M., Moretti, S., and Casagli, N. (2017). Combined use of C- and X-band SAR data for subsidence monitoring in an urban area. Geosciences, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/geosciences7020021"},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"389","article-title":"InSAR based evaluation of land subsidence and ground fissure evolution at Xi\u2019an","volume":"17","author":"Zhao","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1533","DOI":"10.1007\/s00254-008-1654-9","article-title":"Monitoring of land subsidence and ground fissures in Xi\u2019an, China 2005\u20132006: Mapped by SAR interferometry","volume":"58","author":"Zhao","year":"2009","journal-title":"Environ. Geol."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Shi, M. (2009). The Development Condition and Section Structure Characteristic of Xi\u2019an Ground Fissures. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Chang\u2019an University]. (In Chinese)."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"468","DOI":"10.1007\/s12583-018-0841-1","article-title":"Geological factors for the formation of Xi\u2019an ground fractures","volume":"29","author":"Peng","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1190","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-016-5928-3","article-title":"Characteristics of land subsidence, earth fissures and related disaster chain effects with respect to urban hazards in Xi\u2019an, china","volume":"75","author":"Peng","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1029\/2003GL018827","article-title":"Toward mapping surface deformation in three dimensions using InSAR","volume":"31","author":"Wright","year":"2004","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1917","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2002.803848","article-title":"Burst-Mode and ScanSAR Interferometry","volume":"40","author":"Holzner","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"230","article-title":"Mexico City land subsidence in 2014-2015 with Sentinel-1 IW TOPS: Results using the Intermittent SBAS (ISBAS) technique","volume":"52","author":"Sowter","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"895","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2009.2030792","article-title":"Nonuniform ground motion monitoring with Terrasar-X persistent scatterer interferometry","volume":"48","author":"Wegmuller","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wegm\u00fcller, U., Werner, C., Strozzi, T., and Wiesmann, A. (2004). Multi-temporal interferometric point target analysis. Analysis of Multi-Temporal Remote Sensing Images \u2013 The Second International Workshop, World Scientific.","DOI":"10.1142\/9789812702630_0015"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2202","DOI":"10.1109\/36.868878","article-title":"Nonlinear subsidence rate estimation using permanent scatters in differential SAR interferometry","volume":"38","author":"Ferretti","year":"2000","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1151","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2017.1399474","article-title":"Monitoring land deformation in Changzhou city (China) with multi-band InSAR data sets from 2006 to 2012","volume":"39","author":"Lu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"1","article-title":"A review on land subsidence caused by groundwater withdrawal in Xi\u2019an, China","volume":"4","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Bull. Eng. Geol. Environ."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"31","article-title":"A preliminary study of land subsidence in the F4 ground fissure, Yuhuazhai, Xi\u2019an, China","volume":"28","author":"Zhang","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Geol. Hazards Environ. Preserv."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Jiang, Z.W. (2011). Earth Fissure Formation Mechanism under the Role of Water and its Numerical Simulation. [Ph.D. Thesis, Chang\u2019an University]. (In Chinese)."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Liu, Z. (Western Times, 2011). Waterflood restoration of ground subsidence in Xi\u2019an, Western Times, (In Chinese)."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1018","DOI":"10.1785\/BSSA0750041135","article-title":"Surface deformation due to shear and tensile faults in a half-space","volume":"75","author":"Okada","year":"1985","journal-title":"Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, C.S., Zhang, Q., Xu, Q., Zhao, C.Y., Peng, J.B., and Ji, L.Y. (2016). Complex deformation monitoring over the Linfen\u2013Yuncheng basin (China) with time series InSAR technology. Remote Sens., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8040284"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, J.W., Lu, Z., and Degrandpre, K. (2016). Ongoing deformation of sinkholes in Wink, Texas, observed by time-series Sentinel-1A SAR interferometry (preliminary results). Remote Sens., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8040313"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1080\/19475701003648077","article-title":"Characterizing 6 August 2007 Crandall canyon mine collapse from ALOS\/PALSAR InSAR","volume":"1","author":"Lu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Geomat. Nat. Hazards Risk"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/11\/6\/664\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T12:39:02Z","timestamp":1760186342000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/11\/6\/664"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,3,19]]},"references-count":49,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,3]]}},"alternative-id":["rs11060664"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs11060664","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,3,19]]}}}