{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,9]],"date-time":"2026-03-09T16:31:22Z","timestamp":1773073882579,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,4,15]],"date-time":"2019-04-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1555286400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100010665","name":"H2020 Marie Sk\u0142odowska-Curie Actions","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["747793"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["747793"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100010665","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study provides an evaluation of spectral responses of hollow ways in Upper Mesopotamia. Hollow ways were used for the transportation of animals, carts, and other moving agents for centuries. The aim is to show how the success of spectral indices varies in describing topologically simple features even in a seemingly homogeneous geographic unit. The variation is further highlighted under the changing precipitation regime. The methodology begins with an exploration of the relationship between the date of a multispectral scene and the visibility of hollow ways. The next step is to evaluate the impact of rainfall levels on numerous indices and to quantify spectral contrast. The contrast between a hollow way and its background is evaluated with Welch\u2019s t-test and the association between precipitation regime and spectral responses of hollow ways are investigated with Correspondence Analysis and Fisher\u2019s test. Results highlight an intrinsic relationship between the precipitation regime and the ways in which archaeological features reflects and\/or emits electromagnetic energy. Next, the categorization of spectral indices based on different rainfall levels can be used as a guidance in future studies. Finally, the study suggests contrast becomes an even more fruitful concept as one moves from the spatial domain to the spectral domain.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11080913","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,4,15]],"date-time":"2019-04-15T11:15:58Z","timestamp":1555326958000},"page":"913","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":39,"title":["Multispectral Contrast of Archaeological Features: A Quantitative Evaluation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Tuna","family":"Kalayci","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Archaeological and Monumental Heritage (IBAM), National Research Council (CNR), C.da Santa Loja, 85050 Tito Scalo (PZ), Italy"}]},{"given":"Rosa","family":"Lasaponara","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Methodologies for Environmental Analysis (IMAA), National Research Council (CNR), C.da Santa Loja, 85050 Tito Scalo (PZ), Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0680-980X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"John","family":"Wainwright","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geography, Durham University, Lower Mountjoy, South Road, Durham, DH1 3LE, UK"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8804-5718","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nicola","family":"Masini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Archaeological and Monumental Heritage (IBAM), National Research Council (CNR), C.da Santa Loja, 85050 Tito Scalo (PZ), Italy"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,4,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Beck, A.R. (2007, January 11\u201314). Archaeological site detection: The importance of contrast. Proceedings of the 2007 Annual Conference of the Remote Sensing and Photogrammetry Society, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Lock, G., Gillings, M., and Haciguzeller, P. Processing and analysing satellite data. Archaeological Spatial Analysis: A Methodological Guide, Taylor & Francis."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1080\/10106049609354531","article-title":"A new perspective on Angkor; The spatial organization of an historical landscape viewed from Landsat","volume":"11","author":"Parry","year":"1996","journal-title":"Geocarto Int."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"973","DOI":"10.1016\/S0305-4403(02)00284-4","article-title":"Sub-pixel artifact detection using remote sensing","volume":"30","author":"Buck","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Archaeol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.2307\/3210823","article-title":"Satellite images and the representation of Near Eastern landscapes","volume":"1\u20132","author":"Kouchoukos","year":"2001","journal-title":"Near East. Archaeol."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"299","article-title":"Testing Google Earth engine for the automatic identification and vectorization of archaeological features: A case study from Faynan, Jordan","volume":"15","author":"Liss","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Archaeol. Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1302","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actaastro.2009.10.028","article-title":"Automatic archaeological feature extraction from satellite VHR images","volume":"66","author":"Jahjah","year":"2010","journal-title":"Acta Astronaut."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"830","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jas.2006.09.013","article-title":"Methods for the extraction of archaeological features from very high-resolution Ikonos-2 remote sensing imagery, Hisar (Southwest Turkey)","volume":"34","author":"Paulissen","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Archaeol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1016\/j.culher.2017.12.009","article-title":"On the characterization of temporal and spatial patterns of archaeological crop-marks","volume":"32","author":"Masini","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Cult. Herit."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1479","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jas.2012.10.036","article-title":"Optimum temporal and spectral window for monitoring crop marks over archaeological remains in the Mediterranean region","volume":"40","author":"Agapiou","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Archaeol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"9","article-title":"Best period for high spatial resolution satellite images for the detection of marks of buried structures","volume":"15","author":"Kaimaris","year":"2012","journal-title":"Egypt. J. Remote Sens. Space Sci."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Paine, D.P., and Kiser, J.D. (2003). Aerial Photography and Image Interpretation, Wiley."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1017\/S0003598X00075621","article-title":"An archaeologist\u2019s guide to classification of cropmarks and soilmarks","volume":"63","author":"Edis","year":"1989","journal-title":"Antiquity"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"053554","DOI":"10.1117\/1.3645590","article-title":"Vegetation indices and field spectroradiometric measurements for validation of buried architectural remains: Verification under area surveyed with geophysical campaigns","volume":"5","author":"Agapiou","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Appl. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lasaponara, R., and Masini, N. (2012). Image enhancement, feature extraction and geospatial analysis in an archaeological perspective. Satellite Remote Sensing: A New Tool for Archaeology, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-90-481-8801-7"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Masini, N., and Soldovieri, F. (2017). Sensing the past from space: Approaches to site detection. Sensing the Past. From Artifact to Historical Site, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-50518-3"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Agapiou, A., Lysandrou, V., Lasaponara, R., Masini, N., and Hadjimitsis, D. (2016). Study of the variations of archaeological marks at Neolithic site of Lucera, Italy using high-resolution multispectral datasets. Remote Sens., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8090723"},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Jensen, J.R. (2014). Remote Sensing of the Environment: An Earth Resource Perspective, Pearson Education Limited."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1007\/s10816-011-9104-5","article-title":"Near-infrared aerial crop mark archaeology: From its historical use to current digital implementations","volume":"19","author":"Verhoeven","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Archaeol. Method Theory"},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"895","article-title":"Footprints from the past: The influence of past human activities on vegetation and soil across five archaeological sites in Greenland","volume":"654","author":"Hollesen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pan, Y., Nie, Y., Watene, C., Zhu, J., and Liu, F. (2017). Phenological observations on classical prehistoric sites in the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River based on Landsat NDVI time series. Remote Sens., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9040374"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2605","DOI":"10.3390\/rs3122605","article-title":"The Importance of accounting for atmospheric effects in the application of NDVI and interpretation of satellite imagery supporting archaeological research: The case studies of Palaepaphos and Nea Paphos Sites in Cyprus","volume":"3","author":"Agapiou","year":"2011","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1016\/0034-4257(95)00186-7","article-title":"Optimization of soil-adjusted vegetation indices","volume":"55","author":"Rondeaux","year":"1996","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2013.08.029","article-title":"Automated water extraction index: A new technique for surface water mapping using Landsat imagery","volume":"140","author":"Feyisa","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(00)00197-8","article-title":"Comparing prediction power and stability of broadband and hyperspectral vegetation indices for estimation of green leaf area index and canopy chlorophyll density","volume":"76","author":"Broge","year":"2000","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1016\/0034-4257(94)90020-5","article-title":"Estimating crop water deficit using the relation between surface-air temperature and spectral vegetation index","volume":"49","author":"Moran","year":"1994","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1696","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.3543","article-title":"NDVI, Temperature and precipitation changes and their relationships with different vegetation types during 1998\u20132007 in Inner Mongolia, China","volume":"33","author":"Chuai","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1961","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160802546829","article-title":"Assessment of rainfall and NDVI Anomalies in Spain (1989\u20131999) using distributed lag models","volume":"30","author":"Udelhoven","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5201","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160600567787","article-title":"Compared regimes of NDVI and rainfall in semi-arid regions of Africa","volume":"27","author":"Martiny","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaridenv.2017.06.004","article-title":"Examining the NDVI-rainfall relationship in the semi-arid Sahel using geographically weighted regression","volume":"146","author":"Georganos","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Arid Environ."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"598","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2013.871593","article-title":"Relating vegetation dynamics to temperature and precipitation at monthly and annual timescales in Taiwan using MODIS vegetation indices","volume":"35","author":"Chang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2527","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160500104335","article-title":"Discrimination of irrigated and rainfed rice in a tropical agricultural system using SPOT VEGETATION NDVI and rainfall data","volume":"26","author":"Kamthonkiat","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"483","DOI":"10.1086\/204314","article-title":"The structure and dynamics of dry-farming states in Upper Mesopotamia","volume":"35","author":"Wilkinson","year":"1994","journal-title":"Curr. Anthropol."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Lebeau, M., and Suleiman, A. (2008). Settlement and economic landscapes of Tell Beydar and its hinterland. Beydar Studies I, Brepols."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Altaweel, M., and Palmisano, A. (2018). Urban and transport scaling: Northern Mesopotamia in the Late Chalcolithic and Bronze Age. J. Archaeol. Method Theory, 1\u201324.","DOI":"10.1007\/s10816-018-9400-4"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1017\/S0003598X00061391","article-title":"CORONA satellite photography and ancient road networks: A Northern Mesopotamian case study","volume":"77","author":"Ur","year":"2003","journal-title":"Antiquity"},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Ur, J.A. (2010). Landscapes of Settlement and Movement in Northeastern Syria, Harvard Dataverse, V2 Harvard University."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Ur, J.A. (2017). The HarvardWorld Map Project: Hollow Ways in Northern Mesopotamia, Harvard University."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"745","DOI":"10.1002\/gea.20331","article-title":"The geoarchaeology of route systems in Northern Syria","volume":"25","author":"Wilkinson","year":"2010","journal-title":"Geoarchaeol. Int. J."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"209","article-title":"Geomorphological identification of ancient roads and paths on the loess of the northern Negev, Israel","volume":"41","author":"Tsoar","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"137","article-title":"Bronze Age water harvesting in North Syria","volume":"7","author":"McClellan","year":"2000","journal-title":"Subartu"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Deckers, K., and Riehl, S. (2008). Resource exploitation of the Upper Khabur Basin (NE Syria) during the 3rd Millennium BC. Pal\u00e9orient, 173\u2013189.","DOI":"10.3406\/paleo.2008.5261"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2017\/1353691","article-title":"Significant remote sensing vegetation indices: A review of developments and applications","volume":"2017","author":"Xue","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Sens."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"15","article-title":"Multispectral vegetation indices in remote sensing: An overview","volume":"2","author":"Petropoulos","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ecol. Modeling"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1053","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.71.9.1053","article-title":"Lag and seasonality considerations in evaluating AVHRR NDVI response to precipitation","volume":"71","author":"Ji","year":"2005","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"639","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.3370150605","article-title":"Seasonal phase lag between rainfall and vegetation activity in tropical Africa as revealed by NOAA satellite data","volume":"15","author":"Shinoda","year":"1995","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3987","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160802575653","article-title":"Land Surface Water Index (LSWI) response to rainfall and NDVI using the MODIS vegetation index product","volume":"31","author":"Chandrasekar","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Bell, M., and Boardman, J. (1992). Assessing the impact of erosion on semi-arid arch\u00e6ological sites. Past and Present Soil Erosion, Oxbow Books."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1002\/gea.3340090302","article-title":"Erosion of archaeological sites: Results and implications of a site simulation model","volume":"9","author":"Wainwright","year":"1994","journal-title":"Geoarchaeology"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Snead, J.E., Erickson, C.L., and Darling, W.A. (2009). Emergent landscapes of movement in Early Bronze Age Northern Mesopotamia. Landscapes of Movement: Paths, Trails, and Roads in Anthropological Perspective, University of Pennsylvania Museum Press.","DOI":"10.9783\/9781934536537"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1002\/arp.1429","article-title":"The application of vegetation indices for the prospection of archaeological features in grass-dominated environments","volume":"19","author":"Bennett","year":"2012","journal-title":"Archaeol. Prospect."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.7183\/2326-3768.2.3.222","article-title":"Regional-scale archaeological remote sensing in the age of big data: Automated site discovery vs. brute force methods","volume":"2","author":"Casana","year":"2014","journal-title":"Adv. Archaeol. Pract."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/11\/8\/913\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T12:45:33Z","timestamp":1760186733000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/11\/8\/913"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,4,15]]},"references-count":52,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,4]]}},"alternative-id":["rs11080913"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs11080913","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,4,15]]}}}