{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,16]],"date-time":"2026-01-16T12:59:36Z","timestamp":1768568376310,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":54,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,6]],"date-time":"2019-05-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1557100800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004410","name":"T\u00fcrkiye Bilimsel ve Teknolojik Ara\u015ftirma Kurumu","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["B740-100289"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["B740-100289"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004410","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Surface deformations were observed in Bolvadin, located in the province of Afyon (western Turkey) in the last decade which occurred without any destructive earthquakes. In this study, ground deformation of the Bolvadin region is analyzed by means of multi-temporal interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) technique with Sentinel-1 synthetic aperture radar (SAR) data. Sentinel-1 data acquired in ascending and descending orbits between October 2014 and October 2018 are processed with the Sentinel Application Platform (SNAP) and Stanford Method for Persistent Scatterers (StaMPS) open source software tools. Deformation velocity maps and line-of-sight (LOS) displacement time series are produced and compared with geology, groundwater level and the water surface area of Eber Lake nearby. Deformation velocity maps reveal significant subsidence in most of the town and surrounding regions, which is confirmed by field observations that show severe damage to the settlements and infrastructure of the town. The most severe subsidence is observed to be in the southern part of Bolvadin with rates up to 35 mm\/year, which is characterized by the presence of soft alluvial deposits. Composed of slope debris\/talus and conglomerate, the northeastern part of the deforming region experiences a relatively lower rate of subsidence. A strong correlation between LOS displacement time series and groundwater level exists both in the short and long term. Moreover, short term variations in LOS displacement time series also show high similarity with seasonal variations in the water surface area of Eber Lake located a few km southeast of the town. We conclude that the primary cause of subsidence is most probably the overexploitation of groundwater and hydrological changes because of (1) the strong correlation of subsidence with lithological units, (2) the similarity between deformation rate and groundwater level changes, (3) the correspondence of seasonal variations in water surface area and short-term deformation rate oscillations, and (4) the absence of InSAR velocity contrast across the active faults.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11091069","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,9]],"date-time":"2019-05-09T08:19:59Z","timestamp":1557389999000},"page":"1069","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":42,"title":["Ground Deformation Analysis of Bolvadin (W. Turkey) by Means of Multi-Temporal InSAR Techniques and Sentinel-1 Data"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4882-9147","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mumin","family":"Imamoglu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Informatics and Information Security Research Center, TUBITAK, 41470 Gebze, Turkey"},{"name":"Department of Geomatic Engineering, Civil Engineering Faculty, Yildiz Technical University, 34220 Istanbul, Turkey"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8393-3425","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fatih","family":"Kahraman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Informatics and Information Security Research Center, TUBITAK, 41470 Gebze, Turkey"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3050-5619","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ziyadin","family":"Cakir","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geological Engineering, Istanbul Technical University, 34469 Istanbul, Turkey"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1243-8299","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fusun Balik","family":"Sanli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geomatic Engineering, Civil Engineering Faculty, Yildiz Technical University, 34220 Istanbul, Turkey"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"1261","article-title":"Land subsidence monitoring with differential SAR interferometry","volume":"67","author":"Strozzi","year":"2001","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Galloway, D., Jones, D.R., and Ingebritsen, S.E. (1999). Land Subsidence in the United States.","DOI":"10.3133\/cir1182"},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"87","article-title":"Impacts of land subsidence caused by withdrawal of underground fluids in the united states","volume":"16","author":"Holzer","year":"2005","journal-title":"Rev. Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tom\u00e1s, R., and Li, Z. (2017). Earth observations for geohazards: Present and future challenges. Remote Sens., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9030194"},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Demirta\u015f, R., and Tepeu\u011fur, E. (2017, January 26\u201328). Bolvadin (Afyon) Merkez yerle\u015fim alaninda son 15 yillik d\u00f6nemde olu\u015fmu\u015f y\u00fczey kiriklarinin olu\u015fum mekanizmasi. Proceedings of the ATAG-21: Aktif Tektonik Ara\u015ft\u0131rma Grubu \u00c7al\u0131\u015ftay\u0131, Afyon, Turkey."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.25288\/tjb.302914","article-title":"Bolvadin\u2019de (Afyon-Ak\u015fehir Grabeni, Afyon) G\u00f6zlenen Y\u00fczey Deformasyonlar\u0131n\u0131n Jeolojik, Jeomorfolojik ve Jeodezik Analizi","volume":"60","author":"Baybura","year":"2017","journal-title":"T\u00fcrk. Jeol. B\u00fcl. Geolog. Bull. Turk."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Emre, \u00d6., Duman, T.Y., \u00d6zalp, S., Olgun, S., and Elmaci, H. (2011). 1:250,000 Scale active fault map series of Turkey Afyon (NJ 36-5) quadrangle, General Directorate of Mineral Research and Exploration."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Tiryakio\u011flu, \u0130., U\u011fur, M.A., Yal\u00e7\u0131n, M., Baybura, T., Yilmaz, M., \u00d6zkaymak, \u00c7., and S\u00f6zbilir, H. (2017, January 11\u201313). Ak\u015fehir Simav Fay Sistemindeki G\u00fcncel Tektonik Hareketlerinin Izlenmesi: Nivelman \u00c7ali\u015fmalari. 4. Proceedings of the Uluslararas\u0131 Deprem M\u00fchendisli\u011fi ve Sismoloji Konferans\u0131, Eski\u015fehir, Turkey."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"290","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2015.08.027","article-title":"Mapping ground deformation over Houston-Galveston, Texas using multi-temporal InSAR","volume":"169","author":"Qu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9183","DOI":"10.1029\/JB094iB07p09183","article-title":"Mapping small elevation changes over large areas: differential radar interferometry","volume":"94","author":"Gabriel","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1029\/97RG03139","article-title":"Radar interferometry and its application to changes in the Earth\u2019s surface","volume":"36","author":"Massonnet","year":"1998","journal-title":"Rev. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-013-2422-z","article-title":"Radar interferometry techniques for the study of ground subsidence phenomena: a review of practical issues through cases in Spain","volume":"71","author":"Romero","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Earth Sci"},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"1","article-title":"Recent advances in SAR interferometry time series analysis for measuring crustal deformation","volume":"514","author":"Hooper","year":"2011","journal-title":"Tectonophysics"},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"90","article-title":"Time series analysis of InSAR data: Methods and trends","volume":"115","author":"Sunar","year":"2015","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2015.10.011","article-title":"Persistent scatterer interferometry: A review","volume":"115","author":"Crosetto","year":"2016","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1029\/2007WR006152","article-title":"Permanent scatterer InSAR reveals seasonal and long-term aquifer-system response to groundwater pumping and artificial recharge","volume":"44","author":"Bell","year":"2008","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2015.08.014","article-title":"Twenty-year advanced DIn-SAR analysis of severe land subsidence: The Alto Guadalent\u00edn Basin (Spain) case study","volume":"198","author":"Herrera","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, M., Tom\u00e1s, R., Li, Z., Motagh, M., Li, T., Hu, L., Gong, H., Li, X., Yu, J., and Gong, X. (2016). Imaging land subsidence induced by groundwater extraction in Beijing (China) using satellite radar interferometry. Remote Sens., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8060468"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8566","DOI":"10.1002\/2017JB014676","article-title":"Remote sensing of ground deformation for monitoring groundwater management practices: Application to the Santa Clara Valley During the 2012\u20132015 California drought","volume":"122","author":"Chaussard","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"534","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2018.11.003","article-title":"Ground surface response to continuous compaction of aquifer system in Tehran, Iran: Results from a long-term multi-sensor InSAR analysis","volume":"221","author":"Haghighi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Imamoglu, M., Kahraman, F., and Abdikan, S. (2018, January 22\u201327). Preliminary results of temporal deformation analysis in Istanbul using multi-temporal InSAR with Sentinel-1 SAR data. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS), Valencia, Spain.","DOI":"10.1109\/IGARSS.2018.8518755"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aslan, G., Cak\u0131r, Z., Ergintav, S., Lasserre, C., and Renard, F. (2018). Analysis of secular ground motions in Istanbul from a long-term InSAR time-series (1992\u20132017). Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10030408"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bon\u00ec, R., Bosino, A., Meisina, C., Novellino, A., Bateson, L., and McCormack, H. (2018). A methodology to detect and characterize uplift phenomena in urban areas using Sentinel-1 data. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10040607"},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"57","article-title":"The worsening impacts of land reclamation assessed with Sentinel-1: The Rize (Turkey) test case","volume":"74","author":"Erten","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4081","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-013-2793-1","article-title":"Monitoring of coal mining subsidence in peri-urban area of Zongundak city (NW Turkey) with persistent scatterer interferometry using ALOS-PALSAR","volume":"71","author":"Abdikan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Czikhardt, R., Papco, J., Bakon, M., Liscak, P., Ondrejka, P., and Zlocha, M. (2017). Ground stability monitoring of undermined and landslide prone areas by means of sentinel-1 multi-temporal InSAR, case study from Slovakia. Geosciences, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/geosciences7030087"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2018.01.021","article-title":"Integration of ground-based radar and satellite InSAR data for the analysis of an unexpected slope failure in an open-pit mine","volume":"235","author":"Farina","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"B\u00e9jar-Pizarro, M., Notti, D., Mateos, R.M., Ezquerro, P., Centolanza, G., Herrera, G., Bru, G., Sanabria, M., Solari, L., and Duro, J. (2017). Mapping vulnerable urban areas affected by slow-moving landslides using sentinel-1 InSAR data. Remote Sens., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9090876"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-017-0915-7","article-title":"The maoxian landslide as seen from space: Detecting precursors of failure with sentinel-1 data","volume":"15","author":"Intrieri","year":"2018","journal-title":"Landslides"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2018.02.020","article-title":"Deformation responses of slow moving landslides to seasonal rainfall in the Northern Apennines, measured by InSAR","volume":"308","author":"Bayer","year":"2018","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, J.W., Lu, Z., and Degrandpre, K. (2016). Ongoing deformation of sinkholes in Wink, Texas, observed by time-series Sentinel-1a SAR interferometry (preliminary results). Remote Sens., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8040313"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cal\u00f3, F., Notti, D., Galve, J.P., Abdikan, S., G\u00f6r\u00fcm, T., Pepe, A., and Balik \u015eanli, F. (2017). DInSAR-based detection of land subsidence and correlation with groundwater depletion in Konya Plain, Turkey. Remote Sens., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9010083"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1392","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-018-03739-2","article-title":"Constant strain accumulation rate between major earthquakes on the North Anatolian Fault","volume":"9","author":"Hussain","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, C., Ji, L., Zhu, L., and Zhao, C. (2018). InSAR-constrained interseismic deformation and potential seismogenic asperities on the Altyn Tagh Fault at 91.5\u201395\u00b0 E, Northern Tibetan Plateau. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10060943"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"727","DOI":"10.1007\/s11269-009-9467-5","article-title":"Investigation of Aksehir and Eber Lakes (SW Turkey) coastline change with multitemporal satellite images","volume":"24","author":"Sener","year":"2010","journal-title":"Water Resour. Manag."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"941","DOI":"10.1007\/s11269-010-9735-4","article-title":"Changes in the coastline and water level of the Ak\u015fehir and Eber Lakes between 1975 and 2009","volume":"25","author":"Uysal","year":"2011","journal-title":"Water Resour. Manag."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"K\u00f6le, M.M., Ataol, M., and Erkal, T. (2016, January 13\u201314). Eber ve Ak\u015fehir G\u00f6lleri\u2019nde 1990\u20132016 Y\u0131llar\u0131 arasinda ger\u00e7ekle\u015fen alansal de\u011fi\u015fimler. Proceedings of the TUCAUM 2016 International Geography Symposium Book of Proceedings, Ankara, Turkey."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"(2018, December 20). Sentinel Application Platform (SNAP). Available online: http:\/\/step.esa.int\/main\/toolboxes\/snap."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Miranda, N. (2015). Sentinel-1 Instrument Processing Facility: Impact of the Elevation Antenna Pattern Phase Compensation on the Interferometric Phase Preservation, European Space Agency. Technical Report, ESA-EOPG-CSCOP-TN-0004."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"(2018, December 20). Sentinel-1 Quality Control. Available online: https:\/\/qc.sentinel1.eo.esa.int."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Farr, T.G., Rosen, P.A., Caro, E., Crippen, R., Duren, R., Hensley, S., and Alsdorf, D. (2007). The shuttle radar topography mission. Rev. Geophys., 45.","DOI":"10.1029\/2005RG000183"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1029\/2004GL021737","article-title":"A new method for measuring deformation on volcanoes and other natural terrains using InSAR persistent scatterers","volume":"31","author":"Hooper","year":"2004","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1109\/36.898661","article-title":"Permanent scatterers in SAR interferometry","volume":"39","author":"Ferretti","year":"2001","journal-title":"IEEE Transact. on Geoscie. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2015.08.035","article-title":"Statistical comparison of InSAR tropospheric correction techniques","volume":"170","author":"Bekaert","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1029\/2003GL018827","article-title":"Toward mapping surface deformation in three dimensions using InSAR","volume":"31","author":"Wright","year":"2004","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.earscirev.2014.02.005","article-title":"Resolving three-dimensional surface displacements from InSAR measurements: A review","volume":"133","author":"Hu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Earth Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"(2019, January 02). H\u00fcrriyet Gazetesi. Available online: http:\/\/www.hurriyet.com.tr\/gundem\/eber-golu-tamamen-kurudu-40991682."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"(2019, January 02). T24 Ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131z \u0130nternet Gazetesi. Available online: http:\/\/t24.com.tr\/haber\/afyonkarahisardaki-eber-golu-tamamen-kurudu,727012."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Winter, T.C., Harvey, J.W., Franke, O.L., and Alley, W.M. (1998). Ground Water and Surface Water\u2014A Single Resource.","DOI":"10.3133\/cir1139"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1007\/s10040-001-0170-8","article-title":"Interactions between groundwater and surface water: the state of the science","volume":"10","author":"Sophocleous","year":"2002","journal-title":"Hydrogeol. J."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jksus.2010.04.005","article-title":"Impact of lake Nasser on the groundwater of the Nubia sandstone aquifer system in Tushka area, South Western Desert, Egypt","volume":"24","author":"Ghoubachi","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. King Saud Univ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Tezcan, L., Meri\u00e7, B.T., Do\u011fdu, N., Akan, B., Atilla, A.\u00d6., and Kurtta\u015f, T. (2002). Akar\u00e7ay havzas\u0131 hidrojeolojisi ve yeralt\u0131suyu ak\u0131m modeli, Hacettepe University International Karst Water Sources Research and Application Center (UKAM). Project Final Report."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"(2019, April 07). The Turkish State Meteorological Service Web Site, Available online: https:\/\/www.mgm.gov.tr\/veridegerlendirme\/il-ve-ilceler-istatistik.aspx?k=A&m=AFYONKARAHISAR."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"(2018, November 19). Bluedot Water Observatory. Available online: https:\/\/water.blue-dot-observatory.com\/2361."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/11\/9\/1069\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T12:49:28Z","timestamp":1760186968000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/11\/9\/1069"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,6]]},"references-count":54,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,5]]}},"alternative-id":["rs11091069"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs11091069","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,6]]}}}