{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T03:38:48Z","timestamp":1760240328404,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":81,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,7]],"date-time":"2019-05-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1557187200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000139","name":"U.S. Environmental Protection Agency","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["Sub Agreement #MTU-16-S-021","Sub Agreement #MTU-16-S-021"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Sub Agreement #MTU-16-S-021","Sub Agreement #MTU-16-S-021"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000139","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100006505","name":"Engineer Research and Development Center","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["W912HZ-1-C-0021","Sub#7500114834"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["W912HZ-1-C-0021","Sub#7500114834"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100006505","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000001","name":"National Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["OCE97-12872"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["OCE97-12872"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000001","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"US Environmental Protection Agency, Region V","award":["Sub#010902Z1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Sub#010902Z1"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Where light penetration is excellent, the combination of LiDAR (Light Detection And Ranging) and passive bottom reflectance (multispectral, hyperspectral) greatly aids environmental studies. Over a century ago, two stamp mills (Mohawk and Wolverine) released 22.7 million metric tons of copper-rich tailings into Grand Traverse Bay (Lake Superior). The tailings are crushed basalt, with low albedo and spectral signatures different from natural bedrock (Jacobsville Sandstone) and bedrock-derived quartz sands. Multiple Lidar (CHARTS and CZMIL) over-flights between 2008\u20132016\u2014complemented by ground-truth (Ponar sediment sampling, ROV photography) and passive bottom reflectance studies (3-band NAIP; 13-band Sentinal-2 orbital satellite; 48 and 288-band CASI)\u2014clarified shoreline and underwater details of tailings migrations. Underwater, the tailings are moving onto Buffalo Reef, a major breeding site important for commercial and recreational lake trout and lake whitefish production (32% of the commercial catch in Keweenaw Bay, 22% in southern Lake Superior). If nothing is done, LiDAR-assisted hydrodynamic modeling predicts 60% tailings cover of Buffalo Reef within 10 years. Bottom reflectance studies confirmed stamp sand encroachment into cobble beds in shallow (0-5m) water but had difficulties in deeper waters (&gt;8 m). Two substrate end-members (sand particles) showed extensive mixing but were handled by CASI hyperspectral imaging. Bottom reflectance studies suggested 25-35% tailings cover of Buffalo Reef, comparable to estimates from independent counts of mixed sand particles (ca. 35% cover of Buffalo Reef by &gt;20% stamp sand mixtures).<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11091076","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,9]],"date-time":"2019-05-09T08:19:59Z","timestamp":1557389999000},"page":"1076","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Coastal Ecosystem Investigations with LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) and Bottom Reflectance: Lake Superior Reef Threatened by Migrating Tailings"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"W.","family":"Kerfoot","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Great Lakes Research Center, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI 49931, USA"},{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI 49931, USA"}]},{"given":"Martin","family":"Hobmeier","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Great Lakes Research Center, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI 49931, USA"},{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI 49931, USA"}]},{"given":"Sarah","family":"Green","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Great Lakes Research Center, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI 49931, USA"},{"name":"Department of Chemistry, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI 49931, USA"}]},{"given":"Foad","family":"Yousef","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Great Lakes Research Center, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI 49931, USA"},{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI 49931, USA"},{"name":"Biology Department, Westminster College, Salt Lake City, UT 84105, USA"}]},{"given":"Colin","family":"Brooks","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI 49931, USA"},{"name":"Michigan Tech Research Institute, Ann Arbor, MI 48105, USA"}]},{"given":"Robert","family":"Shuchman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Michigan Tech Research Institute, Ann Arbor, MI 48105, USA"},{"name":"Department of Geological and Mining Engineering and Sciences, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI 49931, USA"}]},{"given":"Mike","family":"Sayers","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Michigan Tech Research Institute, Ann Arbor, MI 48105, USA"}]},{"given":"Lihwa","family":"Lin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center (ERDC-Coastal and Hydraulics Laboratory), Vicksburg, MS 39180, USA"}]},{"given":"Phu","family":"Luong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center (ERDC-Coastal and Hydraulics Laboratory), Vicksburg, MS 39180, USA"}]},{"given":"Earl","family":"Hayter","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center (ERDC-Environmental Laboratory), Vicksburg, MS 39180, USA"}]},{"given":"Molly","family":"Reif","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center (ERDC-Environmental Laboratory), Vicksburg, MS 39180, USA"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"853","DOI":"10.1126\/science.185.4154.853","article-title":"Asbestiform amphibole minerals: Detection and measurement of high concentrations in municipal water supplies","volume":"185","author":"Cook","year":"1974","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00250005","article-title":"Impact of man\u2019s activities on the chemical composition of the sediments of Lakes Superior and Huron","volume":"10","author":"Kemp","year":"1978","journal-title":"Water Air Soil Pollut."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"594","DOI":"10.1016\/S0380-1330(99)70764-1","article-title":"Copper mining, copper cycling and mercury in the Lake Superior ecosystem: An introduction","volume":"25","author":"Kerfoot","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. 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