{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,8]],"date-time":"2026-04-08T07:28:18Z","timestamp":1775633298290,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":64,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,8]],"date-time":"2019-05-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1557273600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000038","name":"Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["DSG #253682"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DSG #253682"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000038","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This manuscript provides a robust framework for the extraction of common structural components, such as columns, from terrestrial laser scanning point clouds acquired at regular rectangular concrete construction projects. The proposed framework utilizes geometric primitive as well as relationship-based reasoning between objects to semantically label point clouds. The framework then compares the extracted objects to the planned building information model (BIM) to automatically identify the as-built schedule and dimensional discrepancies. A novel method was also developed to remove redundant points of a newly acquired scan to detect changes between consecutive scans independent of the planned BIM. Five sets of point cloud data were acquired from the same construction site at different time intervals to assess the effectiveness of the proposed framework. In all datasets, the framework successfully extracted 132 out of 133 columns and achieved an accuracy of 98.79% for removing redundant surfaces. The framework successfully determined the progress of concrete work at each epoch in both activity and project levels through earned value analysis. It was also shown that the dimensions of 127 out of the 132 columns and all the slabs complied with those in the planned BIM.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11091102","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,9]],"date-time":"2019-05-09T08:19:59Z","timestamp":1557389999000},"page":"1102","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":103,"title":["Automatic Recognition of Common Structural Elements from Point Clouds for Automated Progress Monitoring and Dimensional Quality Control in Reinforced Concrete Construction"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6825-2691","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Reza","family":"Maalek","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil Engineering, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada"}]},{"given":"Derek D.","family":"Lichti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geomatics Engineering, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada"}]},{"given":"Janaka Y.","family":"Ruwanpura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil Engineering, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)0742-597X(2002)18:2(76)","article-title":"Illustrative Benchmarking Rework and Rework Costs in Swedish Construction Industry","volume":"18","author":"Josephson","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Manag. Eng."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"747","article-title":"Professionals\u2019 Views of Material Wastage on Construction Sites and Cost Overruns","volume":"5","author":"Oko","year":"2013","journal-title":"Organ. Technol. Manag. Constr. Int. J."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Kultermann, E., and Spence, W.P. (2016). Construction Materials, Methods and Techniques, Cengage Learning. [4th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2019.01.224","article-title":"Calculating of CO2 Emission Factors for Chinese Cement Production Based on Inorganic Carbon and Organic Carbon","volume":"217","author":"Geng","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"(2019, April 11). Miami Herald: Feds Fine Contractors Behind Deadly FIU Bridge Collapse for \u2018Serious\u2019 Safety Violations. Available online: https:\/\/www.miamiherald.com\/news\/local\/community\/miami-dade\/article218594530.html."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04016081","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)CF.1943-5509.0000941","article-title":"IFC BIM-Based Facility Management Approach to Optimize Data Collection for Corrective Maintenance","volume":"31","author":"Shalabi","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Perform. Constr. Facil."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jalaei, F., Zoghi, M., and Khoshand, A. (2019). Life Cycle Environmental Impact Assessment to Manage and Optimize Construction Waste Using Building Information Modeling (BIM). Int. J. Constr. Manag., 1\u201318.","DOI":"10.1080\/15623599.2019.1583850"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autcon.2019.03.013","article-title":"Extraction of Pipes and Flanges from Point Clouds for Automated Verification of PreFabricated Modules in Oil and Gas Refinery Projects","volume":"103","author":"Maalek","year":"2019","journal-title":"Autom. Constr."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"829","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autcon.2010.06.007","article-title":"Automatic Reconstruction of As-Built Building Information Models from Laser-Scanned Point Clouds: A Review of Related Techniques","volume":"19","author":"Tang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Autom. Constr."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aei.2015.01.009","article-title":"As-Built Data Acquisition and Its Use in Production Monitoring and Automated Layout of Civil Infrastructure: A Survey","volume":"29","author":"Son","year":"2015","journal-title":"Adv. Eng. Inform."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aei.2015.01.001","article-title":"State of Research in Automatic As-Built Modelling","volume":"29","author":"Armeni","year":"2015","journal-title":"Adv. Eng. Inform."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lehtola, V.V., Kaartinen, H., N\u00fcchter, A., Kaijaluoto, R., Kukko, A., Litkey, P., Honkavaara, E., Rosnell, T., Vaaja, M.T., and Virtanen, J.-P. (2017). Comparison of the Selected State-Of-The-Art 3D Indoor Scanning and Point Cloud Generation Methods. Remote Sens., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9080796"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"606","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2017.2781132","article-title":"LiDAR Point Clouds to 3-D Urban Models: A Review","volume":"11","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Q., Tan, Y., and Mei, Z. (2019). Computational Methods of Acquisition and Processing of 3D Point Cloud Data for Construction Applications. Arch. Comput. Methods Eng.","DOI":"10.1007\/s11831-019-09320-4"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autcon.2007.09.001","article-title":"Automated Retrieval of 3D CAD Model Objects in Construction Range Images","volume":"17","author":"Bosche","year":"2008","journal-title":"Autom. Constr."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aei.2009.08.006","article-title":"Automated Recognition of 3D CAD Model Objects in Laser Scans and Calculation of As-Built Dimensions for Dimensional Compliance Control in Construction","volume":"24","year":"2010","journal-title":"Adv. Eng. Inform."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"05014004","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)CP.1943-5487.0000343","article-title":"Tracking the Built Status of MEP Works: Assessing the Value of a Scan-vs-BIM System","volume":"28","author":"Guillemet","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Comput. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autcon.2011.10.003","article-title":"Automated Progress Tracking Using 4D Schedule and 3D Sensing Technologies","volume":"22","author":"Turkan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Autom. Constr."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autcon.2012.11.041","article-title":"Automated Construction Progress Measurement Using a 4D Building Information Model and 3D Data","volume":"31","author":"Kim","year":"2013","journal-title":"Autom. Constr."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1108\/CI-12-2012-0063","article-title":"Tracking of Secondary and Temporary Objects in Structural Concrete Work","volume":"14","author":"Turkan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Constr. Innov."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autcon.2013.08.012","article-title":"Automated Progress Control Using Laser Scanning Technology","volume":"36","author":"Zhang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Autom. Constr."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maalek, R., Lichti, D.D., and Ruwanpura, J.Y. (2018). Robust Segmentation of Planar and Linear Features of Terrestrial Laser Scanner Point Clouds Acquired from Construction Sites. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18030819"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"338","DOI":"10.1007\/s11633-016-0965-7","article-title":"Towards Automatic Generation of As-Built BIM: 3D Building Facade Modeling and Material Recognition from Images","volume":"13","author":"Yang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Autom. Comput."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autcon.2016.08.018","article-title":"Data-Driven Scene Parsing Method for Recognizing Construction Site Objects in the Whole Image","volume":"71","author":"Kim","year":"2016","journal-title":"Autom. Constr."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"(2019, April 11). Verity\u2014Clear Edge 3D. Available online: http:\/\/www.clearedge3d.com\/products\/verity\/."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1177\/1063293X16670449","article-title":"Automatic As-Built Modeling for Concurrent Progress Tracking of Plant Construction Based on Laser Scanning","volume":"24","author":"Chai","year":"2016","journal-title":"Concurr. Eng."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aei.2017.10.001","article-title":"Semantic As-Built 3D Modeling of Structural Elements of Buildings Based on Local Concavity and Convexity","volume":"34","author":"Son","year":"2017","journal-title":"Adv. Eng. Inform."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autcon.2012.10.006","article-title":"Automatic Creation of Semantically Rich 3D Building Models from Laser Scanner Data","volume":"31","author":"Xiong","year":"2013","journal-title":"Autom. Constr."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Rabbani, T., van den Heuvel, F.A., and Vosselman, G. (2006). Segmentation of Point Clouds Using Smoothness Constraints. ISPRS 2006: Proceedings of the ISPRS Commission V Symposium Vol. 35, Part 6: Image Engineering and Vision Metrology, Dresden, Germany, 25\u201327 September 2006, International Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing (ISPRS). Available online: https:\/\/www.isprs.org\/proceedings\/XXXVI\/part5\/paper\/RABB_639.pdf."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1016\/S0893-6080(05)80023-1","article-title":"Stacked Generalization","volume":"5","author":"Wolpert","year":"1992","journal-title":"Neural Netw."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autcon.2017.12.029","article-title":"6D DBSCAN-Based Segmentation of Building Point Clouds for Planar Object Classification","volume":"88","author":"Czerniawski","year":"2018","journal-title":"Autom. Constr."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"214","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-8659.2007.01016.x","article-title":"Efficient RANSAC for Point-Cloud Shape Detection","volume":"26","author":"Schnabel","year":"2007","journal-title":"Comput. Graph. Forum"},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Ester, M., Kriegel, H.-P., and Xu, X. (1996, January 2\u20134). A density-based algorithm for discovering clusters in large spatial databases with noise. Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining, KDD\u201996, Portland, OR, USA."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aei.2013.10.001","article-title":"Classification of Major Construction Materials in Construction Environments Using Ensemble Classifiers","volume":"28","author":"Son","year":"2014","journal-title":"Adv. Eng. Inform."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1111\/mice.12336","article-title":"3D Object Classification Using Geometric Features and Pairwise Relationships","volume":"33","author":"Ma","year":"2018","journal-title":"Comput.-Aided Civ. Infrastruct. Eng."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shi, W., Ahmed, W., Li, N., Fan, W., Xiang, H., and Wang, M. (2019). Semantic Geometric Modelling of Unstructured Indoor Point Cloud. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi8010009"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Macher, H., Landes, T., and Grussenmeyer, P. (2017). From Point Clouds to Building Information Models: 3D Semi-Automatic Reconstruction of Indoors of Existing Buildings. Appl. Sci., 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/app7101030"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"575","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2009.04.001","article-title":"Knowledge Based Reconstruction of Building Models from Terrestrial Laser Scanning Data","volume":"64","author":"Pu","year":"2009","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Vosselman, G., Gorte, B.G.H., Sithole, G., and Rabbani, T. (2004, January 3\u20136). Recognising Structure in Laser Scanning Point Clouds. Proceedings of the ISPRS Working Group VIII\/2: Laser Scanning for Forest and Landscape Assessment, ISPRS 2004, Freiburg, Germany."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Q., Yan, L., Zhang, L., Ai, H., and Lin, X. (2016). A Semantic Modelling Framework-Based Method for Building Reconstruction from Point Clouds. Remote Sens., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8090737"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compenvurbsys.2015.01.005","article-title":"Semi-Automated Approach to Indoor Mapping for 3D as-Built Building Information Modeling","volume":"51","author":"Hong","year":"2015","journal-title":"Comput. Environ. Urban Syst."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2019.03.017","article-title":"Automatic Reconstruction of Fully Volumetric 3D Building Models from Oriented Point Clouds","volume":"151","author":"Ochmann","year":"2019","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.5194\/isprsannals-II-3-W5-129-2015","article-title":"Robust Classification and Segmentation of Planar and Linear Features for Construction Site Progress Monitoring and Structural Dimension Compliance Control","volume":"3","author":"Maalek","year":"2015","journal-title":"ISPRS Ann. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, L., Su, F., Yang, F., Zhu, H., Li, D., Zuo, X., Li, F., Liu, Y., and Ying, S. (2018). Reconstruction of Three-Dimensional (3D) Indoor Interiors with Multiple Stories via Comprehensive Segmentation. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10081281"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15651","DOI":"10.3390\/rs71115651","article-title":"Automatic Detection and Segmentation of Columns in As-Built Buildings from Point Clouds","volume":"7","author":"Conde","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"119","article-title":"Why Are Most Buildings Rectangular?","volume":"10","author":"Steadman","year":"2006","journal-title":"ARQ Archit. Res. Q."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Nunnally, S.W. (2010). Construction Methods and Management, Pearson Education. [8th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zalka, K.A. (2012). Structural Analysis of Regular Multi-Storey Buildings, CRC Press. [1st ed.].","DOI":"10.1201\/b12326"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1109\/TIT.1975.1055330","article-title":"The Estimation of the Gradient of a Density Function, with Applications in Pattern Recognition","volume":"21","author":"Fukunaga","year":"1975","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Inf. Theory"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1007\/s10827-009-0180-4","article-title":"Kernel Bandwidth Optimization in Spike Rate Estimation","volume":"29","author":"Shimazaki","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Comput. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"ACI Committee 117 (2010). Specification for Tolerances for Concrete Construction and Materials (Reapproved 2015), American Concrete Institute."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Ballast, D.K. (2007). Handbook of Construction Tolerances, John Wiley & Sons. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.1109\/TIT.1983.1056714","article-title":"On the Shape of a Set of Points in the Plane","volume":"29","author":"Edelsbrunner","year":"1983","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Inf. Theory"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1259","DOI":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2008.12.001","article-title":"Localised Alpha-Shape Computations for Boundary Recognition in Sensor Networks","volume":"7","author":"Fayed","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ad Hoc Netw."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"ACI Committee 318 (2014). Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete, American Concrete Institute."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"805","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.73.7.805","article-title":"Building Boundary Tracing and Regularization from Airborne Lidar Point Clouds","volume":"73","author":"Sampath","year":"2007","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Olsen, D.L., and Denlen, D. (2008). Advanced Data Mining Techniques, Springer."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autcon.2012.10.005","article-title":"Accuracy Assessment of Ultra-Wide Band Technology in Tracking Static Resources in Indoor Construction Scenarios","volume":"30","author":"Maalek","year":"2013","journal-title":"Autom. Constr."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"(2019, April 29). Leica HDS6100 TLS Datasheet and Key Performance Specifications. Available online: http:\/\/w3.leicageosystems.com\/downloads123\/hds\/hds\/HDS6100\/brochures\/Leica_HDS6100_brochure_us.pdf."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maalek, R., Ruwanpura, J., and Ranaweera, K. (2014). Evaluation of the State-of-the-Art Automated Construction Progress Monitoring and Control Systems. Construction Research Congress 2014, American Society of Civil Engineers.","DOI":"10.1061\/9780784413517.105"},{"key":"ref_61","first-page":"1883","article-title":"3D Semantic Labeling of ALS Data Based on Domain Adaption by Transferring and Fusing Random Forest Models","volume":"XLII-3","author":"Wu","year":"2018","journal-title":"ISPRS Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autcon.2017.09.014","article-title":"Reconstruction of Scaffolds from a Photogrammetric Point Cloud of Construction Sites Using a Novel 3D Local Feature Descriptor","volume":"85","author":"Xu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Autom. Constr."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"212","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autcon.2014.03.028","article-title":"Automating Surface Flatness Control Using Terrestrial Laser Scanning and Building Information Models","volume":"44","author":"Guenet","year":"2014","journal-title":"Autom. Constr."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"483","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autcon.2018.09.012","article-title":"Representing Geographical Uncertainties of Utility Location Data in 3D","volume":"96","author":"Zlatanova","year":"2018","journal-title":"Autom. Constr."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/11\/9\/1102\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T12:50:18Z","timestamp":1760187018000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/11\/9\/1102"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,8]]},"references-count":64,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,5]]}},"alternative-id":["rs11091102"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs11091102","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,8]]}}}