{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,25]],"date-time":"2025-12-25T07:25:28Z","timestamp":1766647528422,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":27,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,28]],"date-time":"2019-05-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1559001600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Digital photogrammetry (DP) represents one of the most used survey techniques in engineering geology. The availability of new high-resolution digital cameras and photogrammetry software has led to a step-change increase in the quality of engineering and structural geological data that can be collected. In particular, the introduction of the structure from motion methodology has led to a significant increase in the routine uses of photogrammetry in geological and engineering geological practice, making this method of survey easier and more attractive. Using structure from motion methods, the creation of photogrammetric 3D models is now easier and faster, however the use of ground control points to scale\/geo-reference the models are still required. This often leads to the necessity of using total stations or Global Positioning System (GPS) for the acquisition of ground control points. Although the integrated use of digital photogrammetry and total station\/GPS is now common practice, it is clear that this may not always be practical or economically convenient due to the increase in cost of the survey. To address these issues, this research proposes a new method of utilizing photogrammetry for the creation of georeferenced and scaled 3D models not requiring the use of total stations and GPS. The method is based on the use of an object of known geometry located on the outcrop during the survey. Targets located on such objects are used as ground control points and their coordinates are calculated using a simple geological compass and trigonometric formula or CAD 3D software. We present three different levels of survey using (i) a calibrated digital camera, (ii) a non-calibrated digital camera and (iii) two commercial smartphones. The data obtained using the proposed approach and the three levels of survey methods have been validated against a laser scanning (LS) point cloud. Through this validation we highlight the advantages and limitations of the proposed method, suggesting potential applications in engineering geology.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11111267","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,28]],"date-time":"2019-05-28T11:18:09Z","timestamp":1559042289000},"page":"1267","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":32,"title":["A New Fast and Low-Cost Photogrammetry Method for the Engineering Characterization of Rock Slopes"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Mirko","family":"Francioni","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Engineering and Geology, University \u201cG. d'Annunzio\u201d of Chieti-Pescara, 66100 Chieti, Italy"}]},{"given":"Matteo","family":"Simone","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Engineering and Geology, University \u201cG. d'Annunzio\u201d of Chieti-Pescara, 66100 Chieti, Italy"}]},{"given":"Doug","family":"Stead","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Earth Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC V5A 1S6, Canada"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0554-415X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nicola","family":"Sciarra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Engineering and Geology, University \u201cG. d'Annunzio\u201d of Chieti-Pescara, 66100 Chieti, Italy"}]},{"given":"Giovanni","family":"Mataloni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Architecture, University \u201cG. d'Annunzio\u201d of Chieti-Pescara, 66100 Chieti, Italy"}]},{"given":"Fernando","family":"Calamita","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Engineering and Geology, University \u201cG. d'Annunzio\u201d of Chieti-Pescara, 66100 Chieti, Italy"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2012.12.020","article-title":"Photogrammetry and laser scanning for analyzing slope stability and rock fall runout along the Domodossola? Iselle railway, the Italian Alps","volume":"185","author":"Salvini","year":"2013","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compgeo.2015.02.009","article-title":"An integrated remote sensing-GIS approach for the analysis of an open pit in the Carrara marble district, Italy: Slope stability assessment through kinematic and numerical methods","volume":"67","author":"Francioni","year":"2015","journal-title":"Comput. Geotech."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2017.03.023","article-title":"An investigation into the development of toppling at the edge of fractured rock plateaux using a numerical modelling approach","volume":"288","author":"Spreafico","year":"2017","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1067","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-015-0668-0","article-title":"Engineering geomorphological characterisation of the Vajont Slide, Italy, and a new interpretation of the chronology and evolution of the landslide","volume":"5","author":"Wolter","year":"2016","journal-title":"Landslides"},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Donati, D., Stead, D., Ghirotti, M., and Brideau, M.-A. (2017, January 3\u20135). A model-oriented, remote sensing approach for the derivation of numerical modelling input data: Insights from the Hope Slide, Canada. Proceedings of the ISRM International Symposium \u2018Rock Mechanics for Africa\u2019 AfriRock Conference, Cape Town, South Africa."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mazzanti, P., Schilir\u00f2, L., Martino, S., Antonielli, B., Brizi, E., Brunetti, A., Margottini, C., and Mugnozza, G.S. (2018). The contribution of terrestrial laser scanning to the analysis of cliff slope stability in Sugano (Central Italy). Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10091475"},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Tonon, F., and Kottenstette, J. (2006). Using 3DM Analyst mine mapping suite for rock face characterization. Laser and Photogrammetric Methods for Rock Face Characterization, ARMA."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"975","DOI":"10.1007\/s11069-017-3116-8","article-title":"Improvements in the integration of remote sensing and rock slope modelling","volume":"90","author":"Francioni","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2009.03.004","article-title":"Close-range terrestrial digital photogrammetry and terrestrial laser scanning for discontinuity characterization on rock cuts","volume":"106","author":"Sturzenegger","year":"2009","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2012.08.021","article-title":"\u2018Structure-from-Motion\u2019 photogrammetry: A low-cost, effective tool for geoscience applications","volume":"179","author":"Westoby","year":"2012","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"979","article-title":"Geological application of UAV photogrammetry and terrestrial laser scanning in marble quarrying (Apuan Alps, Italy)","volume":"5","author":"Salvini","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eng. Geol. Soc. Territ."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"79","article-title":"A combined field\/remote sensing approach for characterizing landslide risk in coastal areas","volume":"67","author":"Francioni","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Francioni, M., Stead, D., Sciarra, N., and Calamita, F. (2019). A new approach for defining Slope Mass Rating in heterogeneous sedimentary rocks using a combined remote sensing GIS approach. Bull. Eng. Geol. Environ., in press.","DOI":"10.1007\/s10064-018-1396-1"},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Agisoft (2018, July 02). Agisoft Photoscan (version 1.4) 2018. Available online: http:\/\/www.agisoft.com\/."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"(2019, January 07). Leica-geosystems. Available online: https:\/\/leica-geosystems.com\/products\/laser-scanners\/scanners\/blk360."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"(2018, July 02). CloudCompare V.2.9, GPL Software 2018. Available online: http:\/\/www.cloudcompare.org\/."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"799","article-title":"Facets: A Cloudcompare Plugin to Extract Geological Planes from Unstructured 3D Point Clouds","volume":"XLI-B5","author":"Dewez","year":"2016","journal-title":"ISPRS Int. Arch. Photogramm. Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Dershowitz, W.S., and Herda, H.H. (1992, January 3\u20135). Interpretation of fracture spacing and intensity. Proceedings of the 33rd US Symposium on Rock Mechanics, Santa Fe, NM, USA."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"290","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2014.09.003","article-title":"A case study integrating remote sensing and distinct element analysis to quarry slope stability assessment in the Monte Altissimo area, Italy","volume":"183","author":"Francioni","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oniga, V.-E., Breaban, A.-I., and St\u0103tescu, F. (2018). Determining the Optimum Number of Ground Control Points for Obtaining High Precision Results Based on UAS Images. Proceedings, 2.","DOI":"10.3390\/ecrs-2-05165"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsg.2017.02.015","article-title":"Assessment of the precision of smart phones and tablets for measurement of planar orientations: A case study","volume":"97","author":"Novakova","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Struct. Geol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Haneberg, W.C. (2007, January 27\u201331). Directional roughness profiles from three-dimensional photogrammetric or laser scanner point clouds. Proceedings of the 1st Canada-U.S. Rock Mechanics Symposium, Vancouver, BC, Canada.","DOI":"10.1201\/NOE0415444019-c13"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Poropat, G. (2008). Remote characterisation of surface roughness of rock discontinuities. 1st Southern Hemisphere International Rock Mechanics Symposium, Australian Centre for Geomechanics.","DOI":"10.36487\/ACG_repo\/808_123"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"657","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-013-0410-8","article-title":"Determination of joint roughness coefficient (JRC) for slope stability analysis: A case study from the Gold Coast area, Australia","volume":"10","author":"Kim","year":"2013","journal-title":"Landslides"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6635","DOI":"10.3390\/rs70606635","article-title":"Integration of UAV-Based Photogrammetry and Terrestrial Laser Scanning for the Three-Dimensional Mapping and Monitoring of Open-Pit Mine Areas","volume":"7","author":"Tong","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Caporossi, P., Mazzanti, P., and Bozzano, F. (2018). Digital Image Correlation (DIC) Analysis of the 3 December 2013 Montescaglioso Landslide (Basilicata, Southern Italy): Results from a Multi-Dataset Investigation. ISPRS Int. J. GeoInf., 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi7090372"},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Wu, C. (2018, July 02). VisualSFM: A Visual Structure from Motion System. Available online: http:\/\/www.cs.washington.edu\/homes\/ccwu\/vsfm\/."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/11\/11\/1267\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T12:54:11Z","timestamp":1760187251000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/11\/11\/1267"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,28]]},"references-count":27,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,6]]}},"alternative-id":["rs11111267"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs11111267","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,28]]}}}