{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,21]],"date-time":"2026-04-21T23:02:08Z","timestamp":1776812528416,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":59,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,6,18]],"date-time":"2019-06-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1560816000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Vegetation water content (VWC) is recognized as an important parameter in vegetation growth studies, natural disasters such as forest fires, and drought prediction. Recently, the Global Navigation Satellite System Interferometric Reflectometry (GNSS-IR) has emerged as an important technique for monitoring vegetation information. The normalized microwave reflection index (NMRI) was developed to reflect the change of VWC based on this fact. However, NMRI uses local site-based data, and the sparse distribution hinders the application of NMRI. In this study, we obtained a 500 m spatially continuous NMRI product by integrating GNSS-IR site data with other VWC-related products using the point\u2013surface fusion technique. The auxiliary data in the fusion process include the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), gross primary productivity (GPP), and precipitation. Meanwhile, the fusion performance of three machine learning methods, i.e., the back-propagation neural network (BPNN), generalized regression neural network (GRNN), and random forest (RF) are compared and analyzed. The machine learning methods achieve satisfactory results, with cross-validation R values of 0.71\u20130.83 and RMSEs of 0.025\u20130.037. The results show a clear improvement over the traditional multiple linear regression method, which achieves R (RMSE) values of only about 0.4 (0.045). It indicates that the machine learning methods can better learn the complex nonlinear relationship between NMRI and the input VWC-related index. Among the machine learning methods, the RF model obtained the best results. Long time-series NMRI images with a 500 m spatial resolution in the western part of the continental U.S. were then obtained. The results show that the spatial distribution of the NMRI product is consistent with a drought situation from 2012 to 2014 in the U.S., which verifies the feasibility of analyzing and predicting drought times and distribution ranges by using the 500 m fusion product.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11121440","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,6,19]],"date-time":"2019-06-19T02:42:46Z","timestamp":1560912166000},"page":"1440","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":35,"title":["Monitoring the Variation of Vegetation Water Content with Machine Learning Methods: Point\u2013Surface Fusion of MODIS Products and GNSS-IR Observations"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Qiangqiang","family":"Yuan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geodesy and Geomatics, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430079, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Geospace Environment and Geodesy, Ministry of Education, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430079, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Shuwen","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geodesy and Geomatics, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430079, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Linwei","family":"Yue","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Information Engineering, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Tongwen","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Resource and Environmental Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430079, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Huanfeng","family":"Shen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Resource and Environmental Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430079, China"},{"name":"The Collaborative Innovation Center for Geospatial Technology, Wuhan 430079, China"},{"name":"The Key Laboratory of Geographic Information System, Ministry of Education, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430079, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Liangpei","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Collaborative Innovation Center for Geospatial Technology, Wuhan 430079, China"},{"name":"The State Key Laboratory of Information Engineering in Surveying, Mapping and Remote Sensing, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430079, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,6,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Retrieving Leaf and Canopy Water Content of Winter Wheat using Vegetation Water Indices","volume":"99","author":"Zhang","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE J. 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