{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,4]],"date-time":"2026-03-04T04:19:49Z","timestamp":1772597989124,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":61,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,6,21]],"date-time":"2019-06-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1561075200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2018YFC1506801, 41505117, 41775132"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2018YFC1506801, 41505117, 41775132"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002855","name":"Ministry of Science and Technology of the People's Republic of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["IUMKY201904, IUMKY201729"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["IUMKY201904, IUMKY201729"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002855","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Fourteen-month precipitation measurements from a second-generation PARSIVEL disdrometer deployed in Beijing, northern China, were analyzed to investigate the microphysical structure of raindrop size distribution and its implications on polarimetric radar applications. Rainfall types are classified and analyzed in the domain of median volume diameter D 0 and the normalized intercept parameter N w . The separation line between convective and stratiform rain is almost equivalent to rain rate at 8.6 mm h\u22121 and radar reflectivity at 36.8 dBZ. Convective rain in Beijing shows distinct seasonal variations in log 10 N w \u2013 D 0 domain. X-band dual-polarization variables are simulated using the T-matrix method to derive radar-based quantitative precipitation estimation (QPE) estimators, and rainfall products at hourly scale are evaluated for four radar QPE estimators using collocated but independent rain gauge observations. This study also combines the advantages of individual estimators based on the thresholds on polarimetric variables. Results show that the blended QPE estimator has better performance than others. The rainfall microphysical analysis presented in this study is expected to facilitate the development of a high-resolution X-band radar network for urban QPE applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11121479","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,6,21]],"date-time":"2019-06-21T11:54:31Z","timestamp":1561118071000},"page":"1479","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":61,"title":["Raindrop Size Distributions and Rain Characteristics Observed by a PARSIVEL Disdrometer in Beijing, Northern China"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Lei","family":"Ji","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Urban Meteorology (IUM), Beijing 100089, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9795-3064","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Haonan","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cooperative Institute for Research in the Atmosphere, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA"},{"name":"NOAA Earth System Research Laboratory, Boulder, CO 80305, USA"}]},{"given":"Lin","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Urban Meteorology (IUM), Beijing 100089, China"},{"name":"Beijing Meteorological Observation Center, Beijing 100091, China"}]},{"given":"Baojun","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Mesoscale Severe Weather (MOE), and School of Atmospheric Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9952-6464","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xian","family":"Xiao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Urban Meteorology (IUM), Beijing 100089, China"}]},{"given":"Min","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Urban Meteorology (IUM), Beijing 100089, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0261-2815","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Guifu","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Meteorology and Advanced Radar Research Center, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK 73019, USA"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,6,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Houze, R.A.J. (1993). Cloud Dynamics, California Academic Press. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3051","DOI":"10.1175\/JAS3534.1","article-title":"Bulk microphysics parameterization. Part i: Analysis of the role of the spectral shape parameter","volume":"62","author":"Milbrandt","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1273","DOI":"10.1175\/JAS3680.1","article-title":"Improving parameterization of rain microphysics with disdrometer and radar observations","volume":"63","author":"Zhang","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1175\/JAS-D-14-0065.1","article-title":"Parameterization of cloud microphysics based on the prediction of bulk ice particle properties. Part i: Scheme description and idealized tests","volume":"72","author":"Morrison","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"917","DOI":"10.1175\/JHM-D-16-0124.1","article-title":"An improved dual-polarization radar rainfall algorithm (DROPS2.0): Application in NASA ifloods field campaign","volume":"18","author":"Chen","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Hydrometeorol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"352","DOI":"10.1175\/2010JTECHA1488.1","article-title":"A new dual-polarization radar rainfall algorithm: Application in colorado precipitation events","volume":"28","author":"Cifelli","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-1694(01)00555-8","article-title":"Kinetic energy of rain and its functional relationship with intensity","volume":"257","author":"Salles","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"USDA_Agricultural_Research_Service (2019, June 07). Science Documentation Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation, Available online: https:\/\/www.ars.usda.gov\/ARSUserFiles\/60600505\/RUSLE\/RUSLE2_Science_Doc.pdf."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosres.2005.07.003","article-title":"Analysis of the moments and parameters of a gamma DSD to infer precipitation properties: A convective stratiform discrimination algorithm","volume":"80","author":"Caracciolo","year":"2006","journal-title":"Atmos. Res."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11092","DOI":"10.1002\/2017JD027233","article-title":"Raindrop size distribution measurements at 4500 m on the tibetan plateau during TIPEX-III","volume":"122","author":"Chen","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.2151\/jmsj.2013-208","article-title":"Statistical characteristics of raindrop size distribution in the meiyu season observed in eastern China","volume":"91","author":"Chen","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Meteorol. Soc. Jpn."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0450(2004)043<0090:RSDARP>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Raindrop size distribution and radar parameters at cape verde","volume":"43","author":"Nzeukou","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0450(1996)035<0355:EFTRSO>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Evidence from tropical raindrop spectra of the origin of rain from stratiform versus convective clouds","volume":"35","author":"Tokay","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2265","DOI":"10.1002\/2015JD024160","article-title":"Statistical characteristics of raindrop size distributions observed in east china during the asian summer monsoon season using 2-d video disdrometer and micro rain radar data","volume":"121","author":"Wen","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1450","DOI":"10.1175\/JAM2406.1","article-title":"Observations of precipitation size and fall speed characteristics within coexisting rain and wet snow","volume":"45","author":"Yuter","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1106","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0426(2003)020<1106:TSRIOG>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"The shape-slope relation in observed gamma raindrop size distributions: Statistical error or useful information?","volume":"20","author":"Zhang","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Wakimoto, R.M., and Srivastava, R. (2003). Cloud Microphysical Properties, Processes, and Rainfall Estimation Opportunities. Radar and Atmospheric Science: A collection of Essays in Honor of David Atlas, Meteorological Monographs, American Meteorological Society."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Testik, F.Y., and Gebremichael, M. (2013). Rainfall: State of the Science, American Geophysical Union."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"632","DOI":"10.1175\/2009JAMC2208.1","article-title":"Distributions of raindrop sizes and fall velocities in a semiarid plateau climate: Convective versus stratiform rains","volume":"49","author":"Niu","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2063","DOI":"10.1175\/JTECH-D-12-00254.1","article-title":"Articulating and stationary PARSIVEL disdrometer measurements in conditions with strong winds and heavy rainfall","volume":"30","author":"Friedrich","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"310","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.2679","article-title":"Impacts of orography and rain intensity on rainfall structure. The case of the HyMeX IOP7a event","volume":"142","author":"Zwiebel","year":"2016","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1902","DOI":"10.1175\/2011JAS3617.1","article-title":"Do we observe aerosol impacts on dsds in strongly forced tropical thunderstorms?","volume":"68","author":"May","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1933","DOI":"10.1007\/s11434-008-0195-7","article-title":"Diurnal variations of summer precipitation in Beijing","volume":"53","author":"Li","year":"2008","journal-title":"Chin. Sci. Bull."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2769","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.3622","article-title":"Spatial and diurnal characteristics of summer rainfall over Beijing Municipality based on a high-density AWS dataset","volume":"33","author":"Yang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D20115","DOI":"10.1029\/2012JD018158","article-title":"Diurnal variations in convective storm activity over contiguous North China during the warm season based on radar mosaic climatology","volume":"117","author":"Chen","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2742","DOI":"10.1002\/2013JD021145","article-title":"Diurnal evolution and distribution of warm-season convective storms in different prevailing wind regimes over contiguous North China","volume":"119","author":"Chen","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0426(2000)017<0130:AODFMS>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"An optical disdrometer for measuring size and velocity of hydrometeors","volume":"17","author":"Joss","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosres.2013.08.003","article-title":"Characteristics of the raindrop size distributions and their retrieved polarimetric radar parameters in northern and southern China","volume":"135\u2013136","author":"Tang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Atmos. Res."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4027","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.4983","article-title":"A statistical analysis of hourly heavy rainfall events over the Beijing metropolitan region during the warm seasons of 2007\u20132014","volume":"37","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1633","DOI":"10.1175\/2009BAMS2804.1","article-title":"Changes of atmospheric composition and optical properties over beijing\u20142008 olympic monitoring campaign","volume":"90","author":"Zhang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10149","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-15-10149-2015","article-title":"Long-term real-time measurements of aerosol particle composition in Beijing, China: Seasonal variations, meteorological effects, and source analysis","volume":"15","author":"Sun","year":"2015","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aan8461","article-title":"Substantial convection and precipitation enhancements by ultrafine aerosol particles","volume":"359","author":"Fan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"148","article-title":"Distribution of particle size and fall velocities of winter precipitation in Beijing","volume":"76","author":"Jia","year":"2018","journal-title":"Acta Meteorol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"584","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0426(2004)021<0584:COPRDS>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Comparison of polarimetric radar drop size distribution retrieval algorithms","volume":"21","author":"Brandes","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wakimoto, R.M., and Srivastava, R. (2003). Global and Local Precipitation Measurements by Radar. Radar and Atmospheric Science: A Collection of Essays in Honor of David Atlas. Meteorological Monographs, American Meteorological Society.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-878220-36-3"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xie, Y., Fan, S., Chen, M., Shi, J., Zhong, J., and Zhang, X. (2019). An assessment of satellite radiance data assimilation in RMAPS. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11010054"},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"(2019, April 06). Operating Instructions Present Weather Sensor OTT Parsivel2. Available online: https:\/\/www.ott.com\/download\/operating-instructions-present-weather-sensor-ott-parsivel2-without-screen-heating\/."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"352","DOI":"10.1175\/2010JHM1244.1","article-title":"Experimental quantification of the sampling uncertainty associated with measurements from PARSIVEL disdrometers","volume":"12","author":"Jaffrain","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Hydrometeorol."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"243","article-title":"The terminal fall velocity for water droplets in stagnant air","volume":"6","author":"Gunn","year":"1949","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1029\/RG011i001p00001","article-title":"Doppler radar characteristics of precipitation at vertical incidence","volume":"11","author":"Atlas","year":"1973","journal-title":"Rev. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0450(1969)008<0249:TVORA>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Terminal velocity of raindrops aloft","volume":"8","author":"Foote","year":"1969","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteor."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"292","article-title":"Application of X-Band dual polarization radar in precipitation estimation in summer of Beijing","volume":"17","author":"Chen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clim. Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"825","article-title":"The impact of attenuation of X-band dual linear polarimetric radar on hail recognition","volume":"31","author":"Ma","year":"2012","journal-title":"Plateau Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"805","DOI":"10.1109\/PROC.1965.4058","article-title":"Matrix formulation of electromagnetic scattering","volume":"53","author":"Waterman","year":"1965","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bringi, V.N., and Chandrasekar, V. (2001). Polarimetric Doppler Weather Radar, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511541094"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1453","DOI":"10.1175\/JAS-D-17-0242.1","article-title":"Primary modes of global drop size distributions","volume":"75","author":"Dolan","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1648","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(1984)041<1648:FFTSOD>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Functional fits to some observed drop size distributions and parameterization of rain","volume":"41","author":"Willis","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"701","DOI":"10.1175\/BAMS-D-13-00164.1","article-title":"The global precipitation measurement mission","volume":"95","author":"Hou","year":"2014","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1679","DOI":"10.1175\/BAMS-D-15-00306.1","article-title":"The Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) mission for science and society","volume":"98","author":"Petersen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2107","DOI":"10.1175\/2009JTECHA1258.1","article-title":"Using dual-polarized radar and dual-frequency profiler for DSD characterization: A case study from Darwin, Australia","volume":"26","author":"Bringi","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"354","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(2003)060<0354:RSDIDC>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Raindrop size distribution in different climatic regimes from disdrometer and dual-polarized radar analysis","volume":"60","author":"Bringi","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1118","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0450(2001)040<1118:TCONDT>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"The concept of \u2018normalized\u2019 distribution to describe raindrop spectra: A tool for cloud physics and cloud remote sensing","volume":"40","author":"Testud","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4091","DOI":"10.1175\/JAS-D-14-0206.1","article-title":"Drop size distributions and radar observations of convective and stratiform rain over the equatorial indian and west pacific oceans","volume":"72","author":"Thompson","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, A., Hu, J., Chen, S., Hu, D., Liang, Z., Huang, C., Xiao, L., Min, C., and Li, H. (2019). Statistical characteristics of raindrop size distribution in the monsoon season observed in southern china. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11040432"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"932","DOI":"10.1175\/2010JTECHA1349.1","article-title":"CPOL radar-derived drop size distribution statistics of stratiform and convective rain for two regimes in Darwin, Australia","volume":"27","author":"Thurai","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"416","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosres.2015.04.011","article-title":"Separating stratiform and convective rain types based on the drop size distribution characteristics using 2D video disdrometer data","volume":"169","author":"Thurai","year":"2016","journal-title":"Atmos. Res."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1114","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(2004)061<1114:AMIORR>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"A Microphysical interpretation of radar reflectivity\u2013rain rate relationships","volume":"61","author":"Steiner","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(1948)005<0165:TDORWS>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"The distribution of raindrops with size","volume":"5","author":"Marshall","year":"1948","journal-title":"J. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0450(1993)032<0050:GPMRBR>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"General probability-matched relations between radar reflectivity and rain rate","volume":"32","author":"Rosenfeld","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0434(1998)013<0377:TWRA>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"The WSR-88D rainfall algorithm","volume":"13","author":"Fulton","year":"1998","journal-title":"Weather Forecast."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, G. (2016). Weather Radar Polarimetry, CRC Press. [1st ed.].","DOI":"10.1201\/9781315374666"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/11\/12\/1479\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T13:00:27Z","timestamp":1760187627000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/11\/12\/1479"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,6,21]]},"references-count":61,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,6]]}},"alternative-id":["rs11121479"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs11121479","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,6,21]]}}}