{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,30]],"date-time":"2025-10-30T01:39:26Z","timestamp":1761788366899,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":45,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,6,28]],"date-time":"2019-06-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1561680000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Strategic Priority Research Program of Chinese Academy of Sciences, National Key R&amp;D Program of China, and National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["XDA17010101, 2017YFA0603504, 41875183, 41675034, 41775005 and 41805021."],"award-info":[{"award-number":["XDA17010101, 2017YFA0603504, 41875183, 41675034, 41775005 and 41805021."]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Knowledge of vertical air motion in the atmosphere is important for both meteorological and climate studies due to its impact on clouds, precipitation and the vertical transport of air masses, heat, momentum, and composition. The vertical velocity (VV) of air is among the most difficult and uncertain quantities to measure due to its generally small magnitude and high temporal and spatial variability. In this study, a descending radiosonde system is developed to derive VV at the low and middle troposphere in north China during the summer months. The VV is estimated from the difference between the observed radiosonde descent speed and the calculated radiosonde descent speed in still air based on the fluid dynamic principle. The results showed that the estimated VV generally ranged from \u22121 m\/s to 1 m\/s, accounting for 80.2% of data points. In convective conditions, a wider distribution of the VV was observed, which was skewed to large values relative to those in nonconvective conditions. The average VV throughout the entire profile was close to 0 m\/s under nonconvective conditions. In contrast, distinctive vertical air motions below 5 km above the ground were recorded under convective activities. Vigorous air motions with an absolute VV &gt;2 m\/s were occasionally observed and were often associated with the occurrence of cloud layers. Moreover, the detailed structure of the instant air motion near the cloud boundaries (i.e., top and base), with an absolute VV &gt;10 m\/s in convective weather systems, was clearly revealed by this technique. The uncertainty estimation indicated that this method has the potential to capture and describe events with vertical air motions &gt;0.69 m\/s, which is useful for a convective weather study. Further studies are required to carefully assess the accuracy and precision of this novel VV estimation technique.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11131538","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,6,28]],"date-time":"2019-06-28T11:20:26Z","timestamp":1561720826000},"page":"1538","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["A Novel Method for Estimating the Vertical Velocity of Air with a Descending Radiosonde System"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Jinqiang","family":"Zhang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Middle Atmosphere and Global Environment Observation, Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China"},{"name":"Collaborative Innovation Center on Forecast and Evaluation of Meteorological Disasters, Nanjing University of Information Science &amp; Technology, Nanjing 210044, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}]},{"given":"Hongbin","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Middle Atmosphere and Global Environment Observation, Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China"},{"name":"Collaborative Innovation Center on Forecast and Evaluation of Meteorological Disasters, Nanjing University of Information Science &amp; Technology, Nanjing 210044, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}]},{"given":"Yanliang","family":"Zhu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Middle Atmosphere and Global Environment Observation, Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5650-0077","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hongrong","family":"Shi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Middle Atmosphere and Global Environment Observation, Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China"}]},{"given":"Youtong","family":"Zheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Earth System Science Interdisciplinary Center, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20740, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4187-6311","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xiangao","family":"Xia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Middle Atmosphere and Global Environment Observation, Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China"},{"name":"Collaborative Innovation Center on Forecast and Evaluation of Meteorological Disasters, Nanjing University of Information Science &amp; Technology, Nanjing 210044, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2956-2165","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yupeng","family":"Teng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Middle Atmosphere and Global Environment Observation, Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China"}]},{"given":"Fei","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Severe Weather, Chinese Academy of Meteorological Sciences (CAMS), Beijing 100081, China"}]},{"given":"Xinlei","family":"Han","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Middle Atmosphere and Global Environment Observation, Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China"}]},{"given":"Jun","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Middle Atmosphere and Global Environment Observation, Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China"}]},{"given":"Yuejian","family":"Xuan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Middle Atmosphere and Global Environment Observation, Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,6,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(1977)034<0367:PDISIC>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Precipitation Development in Stratiform Ice Clouds: A Microphysical and Dynamical Study","volume":"34","author":"Heymsfield","year":"1977","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"866","DOI":"10.1002\/2015RG000500","article-title":"Aerosol and monsoon climate interactions over Asia","volume":"54","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"Rev. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11247","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-18-11247-2018","article-title":"Intra-annual variations of regional aerosol optical depth, vertical distribution, and particle types from multiple satellite and ground-based observational datasets","volume":"18","author":"Zhao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2141","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(1991)048<2141:SCFITM>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Stratiformcloud formation in the marine boundary layer","volume":"48","author":"Paluch","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12155","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-12-12155-2012","article-title":"Numerical evidence for cloud droplet nucleation at the cloud-environment interface","volume":"12","author":"Sun","year":"2012","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"784","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(1980)037<0784:TCOMMT>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"The contribution of mesoscale motions to the mass and heat fluxes of an intense tropical convective system","volume":"37","author":"Leary","year":"1980","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Stern, D.P., and Aberson, S.D. (2006, January 28). Extreme vertical winds measured by dropwindsondes in hurricanes. Proceedings of the 27th Conference on Hurricanes and Tropical Meteorology, Monterey, CA, USA. Available online: http:\/\/ams.confex.com\/ams\/pdfpapers\/108766.pdf."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.3137\/ao.410105","article-title":"An overview of the past, present and future of gravity-wave drag parameterization for numerical climate and weather prediction models","volume":"41","author":"Kim","year":"2003","journal-title":"Atmos. Ocean"},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Holton, J.R. (1922). An Introduction to Dynamic Meteorology, Academic Press."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00122351","article-title":"The role of thermals in the convective boundary layer","volume":"19","author":"Lenschow","year":"1980","journal-title":"Bound. Layer Meteor."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1803","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(1982)039<1803:UADEIT>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Updraft and downdraft events in the atmospheric boundary layer over the equatorial Pacific Ocean","volume":"39","author":"Greenhut","year":"1982","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.475","article-title":"Seasonal evolution of boundary-layer turbulence measured by aircraft during the AMMA 2006 Special Observation Period","volume":"136","author":"Canut","year":"2010","journal-title":"Quart. J. R. Meteor. Soc."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"396","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(1988)045<0396:AVMITT>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Average vertical motions in the tropical atmosphere observed by a radar wind profiler on Pohnpei (7oN latitude, 157oE longitude)","volume":"45","author":"Balsley","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"547","DOI":"10.1175\/2007JTECHA1007.1","article-title":"On deriving vertical air motions from cloud radar Doppler spectra","volume":"25","author":"Shupe","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1750","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(2001)058<1750:ROOUDA>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Radar observations of updrafts, downdrafts, and turbulence in fair-weather cumuli","volume":"58","author":"Kollias","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7845","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-10-7845-2010","article-title":"Updraft and downdraft characterization with Doppler lidar: Cloud-free versus cumuli-topped mixed layer","volume":"10","author":"Ansmann","year":"2010","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1532","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0426(2004)021<1532:MVMITP>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Mean vertical motions in the PBL measured by Doppler sodar: Accuracy, ambiguities, and possible improvements","volume":"21","author":"Contini","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1821","DOI":"10.1175\/BAMS-D-15-00301.1","article-title":"Doppler radar analysis of a tornadic miniature supercell during the Landfall of Typhoon Mujigae (2015) in South China","volume":"98","author":"Zhao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6485","DOI":"10.1002\/2015GL064809","article-title":"Linear relation between convective cloud base height and updrafts and application to satellite retrievals","volume":"42","author":"Zheng","year":"2015","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2411","DOI":"10.1175\/JAS-D-14-0283.1","article-title":"Satellite inference of thermals and cloud base updraft speeds based on retrieved surface and cloud base temperatures","volume":"72","author":"Zheng","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11407","DOI":"10.1002\/2016GL071185","article-title":"Quantifying cloud base updraft speeds of marine stratocumulus from cloud top radiative cooling","volume":"43","author":"Zheng","year":"2016","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"723","DOI":"10.1002\/2013GL058922","article-title":"Convective vertical velocity and cloud internal vertical structure: An A-Train perspective","volume":"41","author":"Luo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0450(1971)010<0309:ACOAAJ>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"A comparison of aircraft and Jimsphere wind measurements","volume":"10","author":"Treddenick","year":"1971","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteor."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0434(2003)018<0032:GDWPIH>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"GPS dropwindsonde wind profiles in hurricanes and their operational implications","volume":"18","author":"Franklin","year":"2003","journal-title":"Weather Forecast."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2235","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-4-2235-2011","article-title":"Modeling the ascent of sounding balloons: Derivation of the vertical air motion","volume":"4","author":"Gallice","year":"2011","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"767","DOI":"10.1175\/JAS-D-18-0141.1","article-title":"Measuring area-averaged vertical motions with dropsondes","volume":"76","author":"Bony","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"855","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.49710645014","article-title":"Tropospheric gravity waves: Their diction by and influence on rawinsonde balloon data","volume":"106","author":"Lalas","year":"1980","journal-title":"Quart. J. R. Meteor. Soc."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D15123","DOI":"10.1029\/2007JD009458","article-title":"Large variations in balloon ascent rate over Hawaii","volume":"113","author":"McHugh","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1007\/s10546-004-1424-5","article-title":"An auxiliary tool to determine the height of the boundary layer","volume":"115","author":"Johansson","year":"2005","journal-title":"Bound. Layer Meteor."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"928","DOI":"10.1175\/2008JTECHA1240.1","article-title":"Vertical Air Motion from T-REX Radiosonde and Dropsonde Data","volume":"26","author":"Wang","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1585","DOI":"10.1175\/JTECH-D-17-0225.1","article-title":"The NCAR\u2013NOAA Global Hawk Dropsonde System","volume":"35","author":"Wick","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1157","DOI":"10.1175\/2007WAF2006062.1","article-title":"The impact of dropwindsonde data on typhoon track forecasts in DOTSTAR","volume":"22","author":"Wu","year":"2007","journal-title":"Weather Forecast."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"504","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0450(1965)004<0504:COSBT>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Comparison of some balloon techniques","volume":"4","author":"MacCready","year":"1965","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteor."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Nash, J., Oakley, T., V\u00f6mel, H., and Li, W. (2018, December 10). WMO Intercomparison of High Quality Radiosonde Systems, Yangjiang, China, 12 July\u20133 August 2010. Tech. Rep., WMO, 2011, WMO\/TD-No. 1580, Instruments and Observing Methods Report No. 107. Available online: http:\/\/library.wmo.int\/pmb_ged\/wmo-td_1580.pdf."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1007\/s13131-014-0422-9","article-title":"Intercomparison of GPS radiosonde soundings during the eastern tropical Indian Ocean experiment","volume":"33","author":"Xie","year":"2014","journal-title":"Acta Oceanol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosres.2016.04.007","article-title":"Investigation of riming within mixed-phase stratiform clouds using Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model","volume":"178\u2013179","author":"Hou","year":"2016","journal-title":"Atmos. Res."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"846","DOI":"10.1029\/2012JD018515","article-title":"Validation of a radiosonde-based cloud layer detection method against a ground-based remote sensing method at multiple ARM sites","volume":"118","author":"Zhang","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D09S10","DOI":"10.1029\/2005JD006083","article-title":"Absolute accuracy of water vapor measurements from six operational radiosonde types launched during AWEX-G and implications for AIRS validation","volume":"111","author":"Miloshevich","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1007\/s00376-011-0215-4","article-title":"Development of cloud detection methods using CFH, GTS1, and RS80 radiosondes","volume":"29","author":"Zhang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Adv. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1007\/s00376-010-9170-8","article-title":"Intercomparison of humidity and temperature sensors: GTS1, Vaisala RS80, and CFH","volume":"28","author":"Bian","year":"2011","journal-title":"Adv. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"59","article-title":"Comparative analysis of new GPS and GTS1-2 radiosondes","volume":"43","author":"Guo","year":"2005","journal-title":"Meteor. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Vennard, J.K. (1955). Elementary Fluid Mechanics, John Wiley & Sons. [7th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"783","DOI":"10.1007\/s00376-017-6284-2","article-title":"Intensive radiosonde measurements of summertime convection over the Inner Mongolia grassland in 2014: Difference between shallow cumulus and other conditions","volume":"34","author":"Shi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Adv. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2649","DOI":"10.1002\/2016JD025993","article-title":"Seasonal variation of shallow-to-deep convection transition and its link to the environmental conditions over the Central Amazon","volume":"122","author":"Zhuang","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10159","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-16-10159-2016","article-title":"Characteristics of vertical air motion in isolated convective clouds","volume":"16","author":"Yang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/11\/13\/1538\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T13:02:06Z","timestamp":1760187726000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/11\/13\/1538"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,6,28]]},"references-count":45,"journal-issue":{"issue":"13","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,7]]}},"alternative-id":["rs11131538"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs11131538","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,6,28]]}}}