{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,21]],"date-time":"2026-05-21T12:44:41Z","timestamp":1779367481009,"version":"3.53.0"},"reference-count":59,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"14","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,11]],"date-time":"2019-07-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1562803200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003286","name":"Kuwait Foundation for the Advancement of Sciences","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2012141301 and P21544SP01"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2012141301 and P21544SP01"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003286","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In this study, we address the variations of bare soil surface microwave brightness temperatures and evaluate the performance of a dielectric mixing model over the desert of Kuwait. We use data collected in a field survey and data obtained from NASA Soil Moisture Active Passive (SMAP), European Space Agency Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity (SMOS), Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer 2 (AMSR2), and Special Sensor Microwave\/Imager (SSM\/I). In situ measurements are collected during two intensive field campaigns over bare, flat, and homogeneous soil terrains in the desert of Kuwait. Despite the prevailing dry desert environment, a large range of soil moisture values was monitored, due to precedent rain events and subsequent dry down. The mean relative difference (MRD) is within the range of \u00b10.005 m3\u00b7m\u22123 during the two sampling days. This reflects consistency of soil moisture in space and time. As predicted by the model, the higher frequency channels (18 to 19 GHz) demonstrate reduced sensitivity to surface soil moisture even in the absence of vegetation, topography and heterogeneity. In the 6.9 to 10.7 GHz range, only the horizontal polarization is sensitive to surface soil moisture. Instead, at the frequency of 1.4 GHz, both polarizations are sensitive to soil moisture and span a large dynamic range as predicted by the model. The error statistics of the difference between observed satellite brightness temperature (Tb) (excluding SMOS data due to radio frequency interference, RFI) and simulated brightness temperatures (Tbs) show values of Root Mean Square Deviation (RMSD) of 5.05 K at vertical polarization and 4.88 K at horizontal polarization. Such error could be due to the performance of the dielectric mixing model, soil moisture sampling depth and the impact of parametrization of effective temperature and roughness.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11141647","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,11]],"date-time":"2019-07-11T11:28:28Z","timestamp":1562844508000},"page":"1647","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Forward Simulation of Multi-Frequency Microwave Brightness Temperature over Desert Soils in Kuwait and Comparison with Satellite Observations"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Hala K.","family":"AlJassar","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physics, Kuwait University, P.O. Box 5969, Safat 13060, Kuwait"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marouane","family":"Temimi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Civil Infrastructure and Environmental Engineering Department, Masdar Institute, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, P.O. Box 54224, Abu Dhabi, UAE"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8362-4761","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dara","family":"Entekhabi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Peter","family":"Petrov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Disaster Management Program, Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, P.O Box 24885, Safat 13109, Kuwait"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hussain","family":"AlSarraf","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mathematics and Natural sciences, American University of Kuwait, P.O. Box 3323, Safat 13034, Kuwait"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Panagiotis","family":"Kokkalis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physics, Kuwait University, P.O. Box 5969, Safat 13060, Kuwait"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nair","family":"Roshni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physics, Kuwait University, P.O. Box 5969, Safat 13060, Kuwait"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"723","DOI":"10.1006\/jare.2001.0828","article-title":"Spatial variability of Soil moisture content and its relation to environmental indices in a semi-arid gully catchment of the loess Plateau, China","volume":"49","author":"Yang","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. 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