{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,3]],"date-time":"2026-09-03T02:37:59Z","timestamp":1788403079220,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":38,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"14","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,20]],"date-time":"2019-07-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1563580800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"NASA\/Caltech Jet Propulsion Lab","award":["subcontract from the SWOT Project"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["subcontract from the SWOT Project"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Remote sensing of ice phenology for small lakes is hindered by a lack of satellite observations with both high temporal and spatial resolutions. By merging multi-source satellite data over individual lakes, we present a new algorithm that successfully estimates ice freeze and thaw timing for lakes with surface areas as small as 0.13 km2 and obtains consistent results across a range of lake sizes. We have developed an approach for classifying ice pixels based on the red reflectance band of Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) imagery, with a threshold calibrated against ice fraction from Landsat Fmask over each lake. Using a filter derived from the Modern-Era Retrospective Analysis for Research and Applications, version 2 (MERRA-2) surface air temperature product, we removed outliers in the time series of lake ice fraction. The time series of lake ice fraction was then applied to identify lake ice breakup and freezeup dates. Validation results from over 296 lakes in Maine indicate that the satellite-based lake ice timing detection algorithm perform well, with mean absolute error (MAE) of 5.54 days for breakup dates and 7.31 days for freezeup dates. This algorithm can be applied to lakes worldwide, including the nearly two million lakes with surface area between 0.1 and 1 km2.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11141718","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,22]],"date-time":"2019-07-22T02:55:37Z","timestamp":1563764137000},"page":"1718","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":39,"title":["Remote Sensing of Lake Ice Phenology across a Range of Lakes Sizes, ME, USA"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5443-1146","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shuai","family":"Zhang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geological Sciences, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 104 South Rd, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tamlin M.","family":"Pavelsky","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geological Sciences, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 104 South Rd, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"492","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2006.09.015","article-title":"Analysis of climate change impacts on lake ice phenology in Canada using the historical satellite data record","volume":"106","author":"Latifovic","year":"2007","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1743","DOI":"10.1126\/science.289.5485.1743","article-title":"Historical trends in lake and river ice cover in the Northern Hemisphere","volume":"289","author":"Magnuson","year":"2000","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2283","DOI":"10.4319\/lo.2009.54.6_part_2.2283","article-title":"Lakes as sentinels of climate change","volume":"54","author":"Adrian","year":"2009","journal-title":"Limnol. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3465","DOI":"10.1002\/hyp.1394","article-title":"Ice-cover variability on shallow lakes at high latitudes: Model simulations and observations","volume":"17","author":"Duguay","year":"2003","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"781","DOI":"10.1002\/hyp.6131","article-title":"Recent trends in Canadian lake ice cover","volume":"20","author":"Duguay","year":"2006","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process. Int. J."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"410","DOI":"10.1038\/s41561-018-0114-8","article-title":"Global lake evaporation accelerated by changes in surface energy allocation in a warmer climate","volume":"11","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"925","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1253119","article-title":"Sunlight controls water column processing of carbon in arctic fresh waters","volume":"345","author":"Cory","year":"2014","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2294","DOI":"10.1007\/s11434-009-0044-3","article-title":"Monitoring the frozen duration of Qinghai Lake using satellite passive microwave remote sensing low frequency data","volume":"54","author":"Che","year":"2009","journal-title":"Chin. Sci. Bull."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brakenridge, G.R., Nghiem, S.V., Anderson, E., and Mic, R. (2007). Orbital microwave measurement of river discharge and ice status. Water Resour. Res., 43.","DOI":"10.1029\/2006WR005238"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"475","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160304992","article-title":"Determining depth and ice thickness of shallow sub-Arctic lakes using space-borne optical and SAR data","volume":"24","author":"Duguay","year":"2003","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.14430\/arctic1212","article-title":"A method to determine lake depth and water availability on the North Slope of Alaska with spaceborne imaging radar and numerical ice growth modelling","volume":"49","author":"Jeffries","year":"1996","journal-title":"Arctic"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Wakabayashi, H., Weeks, W., and Jeffries, M.O. (1993, January 18\u201321). A C-band backscatter model for lake ice in Alaska. Proceedings of the IGARSS\u203293-IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, Tokyo, Japan."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ALT 3-1","DOI":"10.1029\/2001JD000934","article-title":"Analysis of lake ice dynamics and morphology on Lake El\u2019gygytgyn, NE Siberia, using synthetic aperture radar (SAR) and Landsat","volume":"107","author":"Nolan","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2013","DOI":"10.4319\/lo.2013.58.6.2013","article-title":"Recent lake ice-out phenology within and among lake districts of Alaska, USA","volume":"58","author":"Arp","year":"2013","journal-title":"Limnol. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38449","DOI":"10.1038\/srep38449","article-title":"Arctic lakes show strong decadal trend in earlier spring ice-out","volume":"6","author":"Edwards","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Wang, J. (2018, December 12). Alaskan Lake Database Mapped from Landsat Images. Version 1.0. UCAR\/NCAR-Earth Observing. Available online: https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5065\/D6MC8X5R."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Woo, M. (2008). Climate-lake interactions. Cold Region Atmospheric and Hydrologic Studies. The Mackenzie GEWEX Experience, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-73936-4"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"671","DOI":"10.1177\/0309133310375653","article-title":"The response and role of ice cover in lake-climate interactions","volume":"34","author":"Brown","year":"2010","journal-title":"Prog. Phys. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"621","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2427.1999.00411.x","article-title":"Effects of ice duration on plankton succession during spring in a shallow polymictic lake","volume":"41","author":"Adrian","year":"1999","journal-title":"Freshw. Biol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2017.03.026","article-title":"Cloud detection algorithm comparison and validation for operational Landsat data products","volume":"194","author":"Foga","year":"2017","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shao, Z., Hou, J., Jiang, M., and Zhou, X. (2014, January 8). Cloud detection in Landsat imagery for Antarctic region using multispectral thresholds. Proceedings of the Remote Sensing of the Atmosphere, Clouds, and Precipitation V, International Society for Optics and Photonics, Beijing, China.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.2070635"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13603","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms13603","article-title":"Estimating the volume and age of water stored in global lakes using a geo-statistical approach","volume":"7","author":"Messager","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1819","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.857","article-title":"Historical changes in lake ice-out dates as indicators of climate change in New England, 1850\u20132000","volume":"22","author":"Hodgkins","year":"2002","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol. A J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Vermote, E., Kotchenova, S., and Ray, J. (2011). MODIS Surface Reflectance User\u2019s Guide, The Land Surface Reflectance Science Computing Facility."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"310","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2016.01.004","article-title":"Spatial and temporal patterns in Arctic river ice breakup revealed by automated ice detection from MODIS imagery","volume":"175","author":"Cooley","year":"2016","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2014.12.014","article-title":"Improvement and expansion of the Fmask algorithm: Cloud, cloud shadow, and snow detection for Landsats 4\u20137, 8, and Sentinel 2 images","volume":"159","author":"Zhu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5419","DOI":"10.1175\/JCLI-D-16-0758.1","article-title":"The modern-era retrospective analysis for research and applications, version 2 (MERRA-2)","volume":"30","author":"Gelaro","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4835","DOI":"10.1175\/JCLI-D-13-00635.1","article-title":"Evaluation of the surface representation of the Greenland Ice Sheet in a general circulation model","volume":"27","author":"Cullather","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"328","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2004.07.018","article-title":"Spatial and temporal patterns in Arctic river ice breakup observed with MODIS and AVHRR time series","volume":"93","author":"Pavelsky","year":"2004","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"352","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2019.02.011","article-title":"Identifying historic river ice breakup timing using MODIS and Google Earth Engine in support of operational flood monitoring in Northern Ontario","volume":"224","author":"Beaton","year":"2019","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2010.02.004","article-title":"Spatial dependence of predictions from image segmentation: A variogram-based method to determine appropriate scales for producing land-management information","volume":"5","author":"Karl","year":"2010","journal-title":"Ecol. Inform."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2019.03.015","article-title":"Estimating reservoir evaporation losses for the United States: Fusing remote sensing and modeling approaches","volume":"226","author":"Zhao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1007\/s10712-015-9346-y","article-title":"The SWOT mission and its capabilities for land hydrology","volume":"37","author":"Biancamaria","year":"2016","journal-title":"Surv Geophys."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1379","DOI":"10.1080\/01621459.1968.10480934","article-title":"Estimates of the regression coefficient based on Kendall\u2019s tau","volume":"63","author":"Sen","year":"1968","journal-title":"J. Am. Stat. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.2307\/1907187","article-title":"Non-parametric tests against trend","volume":"13","author":"Mann","year":"1945","journal-title":"Econometrica"},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Kendall, M.G. (1948). Rank Correlation Methods, Griffin."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1324","DOI":"10.1109\/36.701082","article-title":"MODIS land data storage, gridding, and compositing methodology: Level 2 grid","volume":"36","author":"Wolfe","year":"1998","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"801","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2012.2224316","article-title":"Supraglacial streams on the Greenland Ice Sheet delineated from combined spectral\u2013shape information in high-resolution satellite imagery","volume":"10","author":"Yang","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/11\/14\/1718\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T13:07:48Z","timestamp":1760188068000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/11\/14\/1718"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,20]]},"references-count":38,"journal-issue":{"issue":"14","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,7]]}},"alternative-id":["rs11141718"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs11141718","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,20]]}}}