{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,9]],"date-time":"2026-01-09T20:55:45Z","timestamp":1767992145205,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":37,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"15","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,5]],"date-time":"2019-08-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1564963200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Key Research and Development Program of China grant number","award":["2016YFC1400901"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2016YFC1400901"]}]},{"name":"Scientific Research Fund of the Second Institute of Oceanography, State Oceanic Administration grant number","award":["QNYC1803"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["QNYC1803"]}]},{"name":"Zhejiang Natural Science Foundation grant number","award":["LQ19D060003"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LQ19D060003"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Increasingly, LiDAR has more and more applications. However, so far, there are no relevant publications on using airborne LiDAR for ocean optical profiling in the South China Sea (SCS). The applicability of airborne LiDAR for optical profiling in the SCS will be presented. A total of four airborne LiDAR flight experiments were conducted over autumn 2017 and spring 2018 in the SCS. A hybrid retrieval method will be presented here, which incorporates a Klett method to obtain LiDAR attenuation coefficient and a perturbation retrieval method for a volume scattering function at 180\u00b0. The correlation coefficient between the LiDAR-derived results and the traditional measurements was 0.7. The mean absolute relative error (MAE) and the normalized root mean square deviation (NRMSD) between the two are both between 10% and 12%. Subsequently, the vertical structure of the LiDAR-retrieved attenuation and backscattering along airborne LiDAR flight tracks was mapped. In addition to this, ocean subsurface phytoplankton layers were detected between 10 to 20 m depths along the flight track in Sanya Bay. Primary results demonstrated that our airborne LiDAR has an independent ability to survey and characterize ocean optical structure.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11151826","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,5]],"date-time":"2019-08-05T03:25:22Z","timestamp":1564975522000},"page":"1826","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":37,"title":["Ocean Optical Profiling in South China Sea Using Airborne LiDAR"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0635-9220","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Peng","family":"Chen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Satellite Ocean Environment Dynamics, Second Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources, 36 Bochubeilu, Hangzhou 310012, China"}]},{"given":"Delu","family":"Pan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Satellite Ocean Environment Dynamics, Second Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources, 36 Bochubeilu, Hangzhou 310012, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-marine-121916-063335","article-title":"Spaceborne Lidar in the Study of Marine Systems","volume":"10","author":"Hostetler","year":"2018","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Mar. Sci."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"18","article-title":"Annual boom\u2013bust cycles of polar phytoplankton biomass revealed by space-based lidar","volume":"10","author":"Behrenfeld","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"31","article-title":"An Approach to Determining Turbidity and Correcting for Signal Attenuation in Airborne Lidar Bathymetry","volume":"85","author":"Richter","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Geoinf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"191","article-title":"Assessment of depth and turbidity with airborne Lidar bathymetry and multiband satellite imagery in shallow water bodies of the Alaskan North Slope","volume":"58","author":"Saylam","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"786","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.52.000786","article-title":"Oceanographic lidar profiles compared with estimates from in situ optical measurements","volume":"52","author":"Lee","year":"2013","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"478","DOI":"10.1134\/S1024856011050083","article-title":"Lidar and in situ measurements of the optical parameters of water surface layers in Lake Baikal","volume":"24","author":"Kokhanenko","year":"2011","journal-title":"Atmos. Ocean. Opt."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Churnside, J., Hair, J., Hostetler, C., and Scarino, A. (2018). Ocean Backscatter Profiling Using High-Spectral-Resolution Lidar and a Perturbation Retrieval. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10122003"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Concannon, B.M., and Prentice, J.E. (2008). LOCO with a Shipboard Lidar.","DOI":"10.21236\/ADA517452"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4896","DOI":"10.1002\/2015GL064503","article-title":"Subsurface plankton layers in the Arctic Ocean","volume":"42","author":"Churnside","year":"2015","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29134","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.26.029134","article-title":"Subsurface plankton layers observed from airborne lidar in Sanya Bay, South China Sea","volume":"26","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arnone, R., Derada, S., Ladner, S., and Trees, C. (2012, January 12). Probing the subsurface ocean processes using ocean LIDARS. Proceedings of the SPIE\u2014The International Society for Optical Engineering, Baltimore, MD, USA.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.921103"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8294","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.18.008294","article-title":"Lidar signature from bubbles in the sea","volume":"18","author":"Churnside","year":"2010","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3611","DOI":"10.1117\/1.JRS.6.063611","article-title":"Airborne lidar detection and characterization of internal waves in a shallow Fjord","volume":"6","author":"Churnside","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Appl. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"031221","DOI":"10.1117\/1.OE.56.3.031221","article-title":"Dual-polarization airborne lidar for freshwater fisheries management and research","volume":"56","author":"Roddewig","year":"2017","journal-title":"Opt. Eng."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4111","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.57.004111","article-title":"Airborne lidar detection and mapping of invasive lake trout in Yellowstone Lake","volume":"57","author":"Roddewig","year":"2018","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5228","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.56.005228","article-title":"Inversion of oceanographic profiling lidars by a perturbation to a linear regression","volume":"56","author":"Churnside","year":"2017","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6734","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.47.006734","article-title":"Airborne High Spectral Resolution Lidar for profiling aerosol optical properties","volume":"47","author":"Hair","year":"2008","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3241","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-15-3241-2015","article-title":"Spaceborne observations of the lidar ratio of marine aerosols","volume":"15","author":"Dawson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3249","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.32.003249","article-title":"Inversion of lidar signals with the slope method","volume":"32","author":"Kunz","year":"1993","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"652","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.23.000652","article-title":"Analysis of atmospheric lidar observations: Some comments","volume":"23","author":"Fernald","year":"1984","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.20.000211","article-title":"Stable analytical inversion solution for processing lidar returns","volume":"20","author":"Klett","year":"1981","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18698","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.22.018698","article-title":"Lidar extinction-to-backscatter ratio of the ocean","volume":"22","author":"Churnside","year":"2014","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optlastec.2018.09.028","article-title":"Semi-analytic Monte Carlo radiative transfer model of laser propagation in inhomogeneous sea water within subsurface plankton layer","volume":"111","author":"Chen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Opt. Laser Technol."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Mitchell, B.G., Kahru, M., Wieland, J., and Stramska, M. (2002). Determination of spectral absorption coefficients of particles, dissolved material and phytoplankton for discrete water samples. Nasa Tech. Memo., 125\u2013153."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1364\/JOT.75.000321","article-title":"Mathematical modeling of the input signals of oceanological lidars","volume":"75","author":"Kopilevich","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Opt. Technol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, P., Pan, D., Mao, Z., and Liu, H. (2019). A Feasible Calibration Method for Type 1 Open Ocean Water LiDAR Data Based on Bio-Optical Models. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11020172"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6811","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.48.006811","article-title":"Angular shape of the oceanic particulate volume scattering function in the backward direction","volume":"48","author":"Sullivan","year":"2009","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"316","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolmodel.2008.05.006","article-title":"How to evaluate models: Observed vs. predicted or predicted vs. observed?","volume":"216","author":"PinEiro","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Ecol. Model."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2996","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.21.002996","article-title":"Interpretation of airborne oceanic lidar: Effects of multiple scattering","volume":"21","author":"Gordon","year":"1982","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2384","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.38.002384","article-title":"Lidar equations for turbid media with pulse stretching","volume":"38","author":"Walker","year":"1999","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"051405","DOI":"10.1117\/1.OE.53.5.051405","article-title":"Review of profiling oceanographic lidar","volume":"53","author":"Churnside","year":"2014","journal-title":"Opt. Eng."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1211","DOI":"10.1175\/2010BAMS3009.1","article-title":"The CALIPSO mission: A global 3D view of aerosols and clouds","volume":"91","author":"Winker","year":"2010","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5503","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.40.005503","article-title":"Relationship of light scattering at an angle in the backward direction to the backscattering coefficient","volume":"40","author":"Boss","year":"2001","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chami, M., Marken, E., Stamnes, J., Khomenko, G., and Korotaev, G. (2006). Variability of the relationship between the particulate backscattering coefficient and the volume scattering function measured at fixed angles. J. Geophys. Res. Ocean, 111.","DOI":"10.1029\/2005JC003230"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31329","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.22.031329","article-title":"Significance of scattering by oceanic particles at angles around 120 degree","volume":"22","author":"Zhang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15073","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.18.015073","article-title":"Spectral backscattering properties of marine phytoplankton cultures","volume":"18","author":"Whitmire","year":"2010","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Churnside, J.H., Marchbanks, R.D., Lembke, C., and Beckler, J. (2017). Optical backscattering measured by airborne lidar and underwater glider. Remote Sens., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9040379"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/11\/15\/1826\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T13:13:21Z","timestamp":1760188401000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/11\/15\/1826"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,5]]},"references-count":37,"journal-issue":{"issue":"15","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,8]]}},"alternative-id":["rs11151826"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs11151826","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,5]]}}}