{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,14]],"date-time":"2026-03-14T01:05:45Z","timestamp":1773450345203,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,13]],"date-time":"2019-08-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1565654400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"MINECO\/FEDER, UE","award":["TEC2015-69266-P"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["TEC2015-69266-P"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002809","name":"Generalitat de Catalunya","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2017 SGR-0851"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2017 SGR-0851"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In this work, we characterized the ionospheric disturbances generated during the Japan Tohoku earthquake of 11 March 2011, by means of the Atomic Decomposition Detector of Traveling Ionospheric Disturbances (ADDTID) algorithm. This algorithm automatically detects and characterizes Traveling Ionospheric Disturbances (TIDs) from Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) measurements. Applying the high-precision estimates of ADDTID, the propagation parameters would make it easier to distinguish TIDs from different origins, in particular the characteristics conforming the acoustic gravity waves driven by the earthquake\/tsunami. This method does not assume that disturbances follow a circular pattern of propagation, and can estimate the location by the propagation pattern of tsunami wavefronts and related TIDs. In this work, we present in a single framework a description of phenomena observed by different researchers. By means of the ADDTID algorithm, we detect: (a) simultaneous TIDs of different characteristics, where the detection was robust against the curvature of the wave fronts of the perturbations and the accuracy of the estimated parameters. The results were double-checked by visual inspection from detrended Vertical Total Electron Content (VTEC) maps and keogram plots, and the parameters of the slow-speed TIDs were consistent with the tsunami waveform measurements; (b) different wavefronts between the west and east TIDs around the epicenter, consistent in time and space with the post-earthquake tsunami; (c) complete evolution of the circular TIDs driven by the tsunami during the GNSS observable area; (d) fast and short circular TIDs related to the acoustic waves of earthquake; (e) the pre-seismic activity consisting of a set of fast westward TIDs, and the comparison with neighboring days; (f) the location estimation of the tsunami wavefront along the coast and the possible use as early warning. Finally, we report disturbances that had not been previously published with a possible application to local and real-time detection of tsunamis.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11161894","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,14]],"date-time":"2019-08-14T03:59:26Z","timestamp":1565755166000},"page":"1894","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["ADDTID: An Alternative Tool for Studying Earthquake\/Tsunami Signatures in the Ionosphere. Case of the 2011 Tohoku Earthquake"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1583-2307","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Heng","family":"Yang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Signal Theory and Communications, TALP, Universitat Polit\u00e8cnica de Catalunya, 08034 Barcelona, Spain"},{"name":"Department of Mathematics, IonSAT, Universitat Polit\u00e8cnica de Catalunya, 08034 Barcelona, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4907-0494","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Enrique","family":"Monte Moreno","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Signal Theory and Communications, TALP, Universitat Polit\u00e8cnica de Catalunya, 08034 Barcelona, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9687-5850","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Manuel","family":"Hern\u00e1ndez-Pajares","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mathematics, IonSAT, Universitat Polit\u00e8cnica de Catalunya, 08034 Barcelona, Spain"},{"name":"IEEC-CTE-CRAE, Institut d\u2019Estudis Espacials de Catalunya, 08034 Barcelona, Spain"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9554","DOI":"10.1002\/2017JA023988","article-title":"Multi-TID detection and characterization in a dense Global Navigation Satellite System receiver network","volume":"122","author":"Yang","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, H., Monte Moreno, E., and Hern\u00e1ndez-Pajares, M. (2018). Detection and Description of the Different Ionospheric Disturbances that Appeared during the Solar Eclipse of 21 August 2017. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10111710"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1038\/239073a0","article-title":"Gravity waves in the atmosphere","volume":"239","author":"Hines","year":"1972","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1995","DOI":"10.1029\/JC081i012p01995","article-title":"On the possible detection of tsunamis by a monitoring of the ionosphere","volume":"81","author":"Peltier","year":"1976","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2531","DOI":"10.1002\/2015JA022273","article-title":"Observation of TEC perturbation associated with medium-scale traveling ionospheric disturbance and possible seeding mechanism of atmospheric gravity wave at a Brazilian sector","volume":"121","author":"Jonah","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"840","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-246X.2005.02552.x","article-title":"Ionospheric detection of gravity waves induced by tsunamis","volume":"160","author":"Artru","year":"2005","journal-title":"Geophys. J. Int."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, M.C., Pradipta, R., Burke, W.J., Labno, A., Burton, L.M., Cohen, J.A., Dorfman, S.E., Coster, A.J., Sulzer, M.P., and Kuo, S.P. (2008). Did tsunami-launched gravity waves trigger ionospheric turbulence over Arecibo?. J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys., 113.","DOI":"10.1029\/2007JA012615"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Braitenberg, C., and Rabinovich, A.B. (2017). Ionospheric Plasma Response to Mw8.3 Chile Illapel Earthquake on September 16, 2015. The Chile-2015 (Illapel) Earthquake and Tsunami, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-57822-4"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"863","DOI":"10.5047\/eps.2011.06.034","article-title":"Acoustic resonance and plasma depletion detected by GPS total electron content observation after the 2011 off the Pacific coast of Tohoku Earthquake","volume":"63","author":"Saito","year":"2011","journal-title":"Earth Planets Space"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"853","DOI":"10.5047\/eps.2011.06.020","article-title":"The resonant response of the ionosphere imaged after the 2011 off the Pacific coast of Tohoku Earthquake","volume":"63","author":"Rolland","year":"2011","journal-title":"Earth Planets Space"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, J.Y., Chen, C.H., Lin, C.H., Tsai, H.F., Chen, C.H., and Kamogawa, M. (2011). Ionospheric disturbances triggered by the 11 March 2011 M9. 0 Tohoku earthquake. J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys., 116.","DOI":"10.1029\/2011JA016761"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"875","DOI":"10.5047\/eps.2011.06.035","article-title":"Ionospheric disturbances detected by GPS total electron content observation after the 2011 off the Pacific coast of Tohoku Earthquake","volume":"63","author":"Tsugawa","year":"2011","journal-title":"Earth Planets Space"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Galvan, D.A., Komjathy, A., Hickey, M.P., Stephens, P., Snively, J., Tony Song, Y., Butala, M.D., and Mannucci, A.J. (2012). Ionospheric signatures of Tohoku-Oki tsunami of March 11, 2011: Model comparisons near the epicenter. Radio Sci., 47.","DOI":"10.1029\/2012RS005023"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"869","DOI":"10.5047\/eps.2011.06.008","article-title":"Ionospheric multiple stratifications and irregularities induced by the 2011 off the Pacific coast of Tohoku Earthquake","volume":"63","author":"Maruyama","year":"2011","journal-title":"Earth Planets Space"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Makela, J., Lognonn\u00e9, P., H\u00e9bert, H., Gehrels, T., Rolland, L., Allgeyer, S., Kherani, A., Occhipinti, G., Astafyeva, E., and Co\u00efsson, P. (2011). Imaging and modeling the ionospheric airglow response over Hawaii to the tsunami generated by the Tohoku earthquake of 11 March 2011. Geophys. Res. Lett., 38.","DOI":"10.1029\/2011GL047860"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1287","DOI":"10.5047\/eps.2012.08.003","article-title":"Detecting ionospheric TEC perturbations caused by natural hazards using a global network of GPS receivers: The Tohoku case study","volume":"64","author":"Komjathy","year":"2012","journal-title":"Earth Planets Space"},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Sagiya, T. (2004). A decade of GEONET: 1994\u20132003. Earth Planets Space, 56."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Japan MLIT Nationwide Ocean Wave information network for Ports and HArbourS (NOWPHAS) (2018, September 01). Waveform Measurements of GPS Buoys, Coastal Wave Gauges and Tide Gauges for the Tsunami Triggered by 2011 Mw9.1 Tohoku Earthquake, Available online: https:\/\/nowphas.mlit.go.jp\/prg\/pastdata\/static\/sub311.htm."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"U.S. NOAA National Data Buoy Center (NDBC) (2018, September 01). Waveform Measurements of DART for the Tsunami Triggered by 2011 Mw9.1 Tohoku Earthquake, Available online: https:\/\/www.ndbc.noaa.gov\/obs.shtml."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"U.S. NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) (2019, March 07). Solar Data Services: Sun, Solar Activity and Upper Atmosphere Data, Available online: https:\/\/www.ngdc.noaa.gov\/stp\/solar\/solardataservices.html."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"U.S. NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) (2019, March 07). Geomagnetic Data, Available online: https:\/\/www.ngdc.noaa.gov\/geomag\/data.shtml."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Japan World Data Center for Geomagnetism (2019, March 07). Geomagnetic Equatorial Dst index. Available online: http:\/\/wdc.kugi.kyoto-u.ac.jp\/dst_final\/201103\/index.html."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Japan World Data Center for Geomagnetism (2019, March 07). Auroral Electrojet Activity Index. Available online: http:\/\/wdc.kugi.kyoto-u.ac.jp\/ae_provisional\/201103\/index_20110311.html."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hern\u00e1ndez-Pajares, M., Juan, J., and Sanz, J. (2006). Medium-scale traveling ionospheric disturbances affecting GPS measurements: Spatial and temporal analysis. J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys., 111.","DOI":"10.1029\/2005JA011474"},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"U.S. NASA\u2019s Community Coordinated Modeling Center (2018, March 01). International Reference Ionosphere 2016 Database, Available online: https:\/\/ccmc.gsfc.nasa.gov\/modelweb\/models\/iri2016_vitmo.php."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"(2018, September 01). TED Talk: Hans Rosling Shows the Best Stats You\u2019ve Ever Seen. Available online: https:\/\/www.ted.com\/talks\/hans_rosling_shows_the_best_stats_you_ve_ever_seen?language=en#t-265791."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hern\u00e1ndez-Pajares, M., Juan, J., Sanz, J., and Arag\u00f3n-\u00c0ngel, A. (2012). Propagation of medium scale traveling ionospheric disturbances at different latitudes and solar cycle conditions. Radio Sci., 47.","DOI":"10.1029\/2011RS004951"},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"(2019, August 05). Ionospheric Disturbance Movie over Japan from 04:00-10:00 UT on 11 March 2011. Available online: https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/playlist?list=PL8I8j8_yCWSYlvUe5sVlQx3Zdm0lqF0FJ."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mori, N., Takahashi, T., and Tohoku Earthquake Tsunami Joint Survey Group (2012). Nationwide post event survey and analysis of the 2011 Tohoku earthquake tsunami. Coast. Eng. J., 54.","DOI":"10.1142\/S0578563412500015"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"812","DOI":"10.5047\/eps.2011.06.010","article-title":"Tsunami source of the 2011 off the Pacific coast of Tohoku Earthquake","volume":"63","author":"Fujii","year":"2011","journal-title":"Earth Planets Space"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1473","DOI":"10.1785\/0120120122","article-title":"Time and space distribution of coseismic slip of the 2011 Tohoku earthquake as inferred from tsunami waveform data","volume":"103","author":"Satake","year":"2013","journal-title":"Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"U.S. Geological Survey (2019, May 09). Earthquake Lists, Maps, and Statistics, Available online: https:\/\/earthquake.usgs.gov\/earthquakes."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Song, Y.T., Fukumori, I., Shum, C., and Yi, Y. (2012). Merging tsunamis of the 2011 Tohoku-Oki earthquake detected over the open ocean. Geophys. Res. Lett., 39.","DOI":"10.1029\/2011GL050767"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Freegarde, T. (2012). Sinusoidal waveforms. Introduction to the Physics of Waves, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9781139048149"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Heki, K. (2011). Ionospheric electron enhancement preceding the 2011 Tohoku-Oki earthquake. Geophys. Res. Lett., 38.","DOI":"10.1029\/2011GL047908"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1751","DOI":"10.1002\/jgra.50118","article-title":"Is an ionospheric electron enhancement preceding the 2011 Tohoku-Oki earthquake a precursor?","volume":"118","author":"Kamogawa","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1186\/BF03352681","article-title":"Statistical study of medium-scale traveling ionospheric disturbances observed with the GPS networks in Southern California","volume":"59","author":"Kotake","year":"2007","journal-title":"Earth Planets Space"},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"291","article-title":"Statistical study of medium-scale traveling ionospheric disturbances observed with a GPS receiver network in Japan","volume":"Volume 2","author":"Abdu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Aeronomy of the Earth\u2019s Atmosphere and Ionosphere. IAGA Special Sopron Book Series"},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"(2019, August 05). A Group of Ionospheric Disturbance Movies over Japan from 04:00-10:00 UT on Different Dates. Available online: https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/playlist?list=PL8I8j8_yCWSZBsbaHxaGvN6mfA82SvyPE."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hastie, T., Tibshirani, R., and Wainwright, M. (2015). Statistical Learning with Sparsity: The Lasso and Generalizations, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/b18401"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/11\/16\/1894\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T13:10:48Z","timestamp":1760188248000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/11\/16\/1894"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,13]]},"references-count":40,"journal-issue":{"issue":"16","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,8]]}},"alternative-id":["rs11161894"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs11161894","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,13]]}}}