{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,13]],"date-time":"2026-02-13T15:21:36Z","timestamp":1770996096866,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":95,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,15]],"date-time":"2019-08-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1565827200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study analyzes the impact of land use\/land cover (LULC) changes on the hydrology of the dry Afromontane forest landscape in northern Ethiopia. Landsat satellite images of thematic mapper (TM) (1986), TM (2001), and Operational Land Imager (OLI) (2018) were employed to assess LULC. All of the images were classified while using the maximum likelihood image classification technique, and the changes were assessed by post-classification comparison. Seven LULC classes were defined with an overall accuracy 83\u201390% and a Kappa coefficient of 0.82\u20130.92. The classification result for 1986 revealed dominance of shrublands (48.5%), followed by cultivated land (42%). Between 1986 and 2018, cultivated land became the dominant (39.6%) LULC type, accompanied by a decrease in shrubland to 32.2%, as well as increases in forestland (from 4.8% to 21.4%) and bare land (from 0% to 0.96%). The soil conservation systems curve number model (SCS-CN) was consequently employed to simulate forest hydrological response to climatic variations and land-cover changes during three selected years. The observed changes in direct surface runoff, the runoff coefficient, and storage capacity of the soil were partially linked to the changes in LULC that were associated with expanding bare land and built-up areas. This change in land use aggravates the runoff potential of the study area by 31.6 mm per year on average. Runoff coefficients ranged from 25.3% to 47.2% with varied storm rainfall intensities of 26.1\u201345.4 mm\/ha. The temporal variability of climate change and potential evapotranspiration increased by 1% during 1981\u20132018. The observed rainfall and modelled runoff showed a strong positive correlation (R2 = 0.78; p &lt; 0.001). Regression analysis between runoff and rainfall intensity indicates their high and significant correlation (R2 = 0.89; p &lt; 0.0001). Changes were also common along the slope gradient and agro-ecological zones at varying proportions. The observed changes in land degradation and surface runoff are highly linked to the change in LULC. Further study is suggested on climate scenario-based modeling of hydrological processes that are related to land use changes to understand the hydrological variability of the dry Afromontane forest ecosystems.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11161905","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,15]],"date-time":"2019-08-15T11:11:00Z","timestamp":1565867460000},"page":"1905","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":24,"title":["Hydrological Response of Dry Afromontane Forest to Changes in Land Use and Land Cover in Northern Ethiopia"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6607-2320","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Belay Manjur","family":"Gebru","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Science and Ecological Engineering, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Korea"},{"name":"Mekelle Environment and Forestry Research, Ethiopian Environment and Forestry Research Institute, Addis Ababa 1000, Ethiopia"}]},{"given":"Woo-Kyun","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Science and Ecological Engineering, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Korea"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5876-6410","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Asia","family":"Khamzina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Science and Ecological Engineering, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Korea"}]},{"given":"Sle-gee","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Science and Ecological Engineering, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Korea"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8553-6602","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emnet","family":"Negash","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Climate and Society, Mekelle University, Mek\u2019ele 231, Ethiopia"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Thorsen, B.J., Mavsar, R., Tyrv\u00e4inen, L., and Prokofieva, I. (2014). The Provision of Forest Ecosystem Services. Volume 1: Quantifying and Valuing Non-Marketed Ecosystem Services. What Science Can Tell Us 5, European Forest Institute."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1890\/070195","article-title":"Why biodiversity is important to the functioning of real-world ecosystems","volume":"7","author":"Duffy","year":"2009","journal-title":"Front. Ecol. Environ."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8650","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0912668107","article-title":"Quantification of global gross forest cover loss","volume":"107","author":"Hansen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tree.2005.07.009","article-title":"Tropical forests in a changing environment","volume":"20","author":"Wright","year":"2005","journal-title":"Trends Ecol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foreco.2015.06.014","article-title":"Dynamics of global forest area: Results from the FAO Global Forest Resources Assessment 2015","volume":"352","author":"Keenan","year":"2015","journal-title":"For. Ecol. Manag."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"814","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aac6759","article-title":"Forest health and global change","volume":"349","author":"Trumbore","year":"2015","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150066","DOI":"10.1038\/sdata.2015.66","article-title":"The climate hazards infrared precipitation with stations\u2014A new environmental record for monitoring extremes","volume":"22","author":"Funk","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Data"},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Alley, R., Berntsen, T., Bindoff, N.L., Chen, Z., Chidthaisong, A., Friedlingstein, P., Gregory, J., Hegerl, G., Heimann, M., and Hewitson, B. (2007). Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis, Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change; Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"2085","article-title":"The Sub-Saharan Africa carbon balance, an overview","volume":"6","author":"Bombelli","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biogeosci. Discuss."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2193","DOI":"10.5194\/bg-6-2193-2009","article-title":"An outlook on the Sub-Saharan Africa carbon balance","volume":"6","author":"Bombelli","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biogeosciences"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1705","DOI":"10.1098\/rsta.2002.1027","article-title":"The influence of land-use change and landscape dynamics on the climate system: Relevance to climate-change policy beyond the radiative effect of greenhouse gases","volume":"360","author":"Pielke","year":"2002","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. A Math. Phys. Eng. Sci."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Kidanu, S. (2004). Using Eucalyptus for Soil & Water Conservation on the Highland Vertisols of Ethiopia, Wageningen University and Research Centre."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"211","article-title":"Land-use changes and their impacts on soil degradation and surface runoff of two catchments of Northern Ethiopia","volume":"60","author":"Gebresamuel","year":"2010","journal-title":"Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica Sect. B Soil Plant Sci."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1285","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160512331337763","article-title":"Cover: Land-use\/land-cover change analysis in part of Ethiopia using Landsat Thematic Mapper data","volume":"26","author":"Dwivedi","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Paudyal, K., Keenan, R.J., and Baral, H. (2014, January 8\u201312). Approaches and tools to assess multiple ecosystem services and their relevance to developing countries. Paper Presented in 7th ESP Conference, San Jose, Costa Rica."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1004777301260","article-title":"Effects of land use on N-15 natural abundance of soils in Ethiopian highlands","volume":"222","author":"Eshetu","year":"2000","journal-title":"Plant Soil"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1579\/0044-7447-29.2.83","article-title":"Reconstruction of forest site history in Ethiopian highlands based on 13C natural abundance of soils","volume":"29","author":"Eshetu","year":"2000","journal-title":"AMBIO J. Hum. Environ."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1659\/0276-4741(2005)025[0147:TIOCIP]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"The implications of changes in population, land use, and land management for surface runoff in the upper Nile Basin area of Ethiopia","volume":"25","author":"Hurni","year":"2005","journal-title":"Mt. Res. Dev."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1659\/0276-4741(2001)021[0184:IOLUAL]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Implications of land use and land cover dynamics for mountain resource degradation in the Northwestern Ethiopian highlands","volume":"21","author":"Zeleke","year":"2001","journal-title":"Mt. Res. Dev."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1007\/s13280-010-0047-y","article-title":"Forest cover and stream flow in a headwater of the Blue Nile: Complementing observational data analysis with community perception","volume":"39","author":"Gebrehiwot","year":"2010","journal-title":"Ambio"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1979","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-15-1979-2011","article-title":"Changes in land cover, rainfall and stream flow in Upper Gilgel Abbay catchment, Blue Nile basin\u2013Ethiopia","volume":"15","author":"Rientjes","year":"2011","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2012.12.023","article-title":"Trend analysis of runoff and sediment fluxes in the Upper Blue Nile basin: A combined analysis of statistical tests, physically-based models and landuse maps","volume":"482","author":"Gebremicael","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"199","article-title":"Evaluations of land use\/land cover changes and land degradation in Dera District, Ethiopia: GIS and remote sensing based analysis","volume":"2","author":"Gashaw","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Sci. Res. Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1186\/s40068-017-0081-x","article-title":"Land use\/cover dynamics and its drivers in Gelda catchment, Lake Tana watershed, Ethiopia","volume":"6","author":"Hassen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Syst. Res."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1808","DOI":"10.1080\/02626667.2014.892598","article-title":"SWAT-based hydrological modelling of tropical land-use scenarios","volume":"59","author":"Memarian","year":"2014","journal-title":"Hydrol. Sci. J."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"35","article-title":"Ecological restoration and church forests in northern Ethiopia","volume":"1","author":"Bongers","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Drylands"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mahmoud, S.H., and Alazba, A. (2015). Hydrological response to land cover changes and human activities in arid regions using a geographic information system and remote sensing. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0125805"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3319","DOI":"10.1007\/s11269-014-0681-4","article-title":"Identification of potential sites for groundwater recharge using a GIS-based decision support system in Jazan region-Saudi Arabia","volume":"28","author":"Mahmoud","year":"2014","journal-title":"Water Resour. Manag."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1659\/0276-4741(2000)020[0042:LCCBAI]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Land cover changes between 1958 and 1986 in Kalu District, southern Wello, Ethiopia","volume":"20","author":"Tekle","year":"2000","journal-title":"Mt. Res. Dev."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1007\/s10666-018-9619-1","article-title":"Modeling climate change impact on the Hydrology of Keleta watershed in the Awash River basin, Ethiopia","volume":"24","author":"Bekele","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Model Assess."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"31. Shiferaw, H., Bewket, W., Alamirew, T., Zeleke, G., Teketay, D., Bekele, K., Schaffner, U., and Eckert, S. (2019). Implications of land use\/land cover dynamics and Prosopis invasion on ecosystem service values in Afar Region, Ethiopia. Sci. Total Environ., 675, 354\u2013366.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2019.04.220"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4599","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2017.1421797","article-title":"Vegetation condition prediction for drought monitoring in pastoralist areas: A case study in Ethiopia","volume":"39","author":"Demisse","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1016\/bs.aecr.2017.12.004","article-title":"Challenges with inferring how land-use affects terrestrial biodiversity: Study design, time, space and synthesis","volume":"58","author":"Martin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv. Ecol. Res."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hernandez, M., Miller, S.N., Goodrich, D.C., Goff, B.F., Kepner, W.G., Edmonds, C.M., and Jones, K.B. (2000). Modeling runoff response to land cover and rainfall spatial variability in semi-arid watersheds. Monitoring Ecological Condition in the Western United States, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-011-4343-1_23"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1002\/ird.2326","article-title":"The effect of climate and land-cover changes on runoff response in Guguf spate systems, northern Ethiopia","volume":"68","author":"Negash","year":"2019","journal-title":"Irrig. Drain."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1007\/s10333-009-0175-9","article-title":"Assessing the impact of climate change on the land hydrology in Taiwan","volume":"7","author":"Li","year":"2009","journal-title":"Paddy Water Environ."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5686","DOI":"10.1175\/JCLI3990.1","article-title":"Robust responses of the hydrological cycle to global warming","volume":"19","author":"Held","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2015.08.148","article-title":"Dynamic integration of land use changes in a hydrologic assessment of a rapidly developing Indian catchment","volume":"539","author":"Wagner","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"61","article-title":"Land use land cover changes along topographic gradients in Hugumburda national forest priority area, Northern Ethiopia","volume":"13","author":"Birhane","year":"2019","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Appl. Soc. Environ."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"724","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2016.09.124","article-title":"Hydrological responses to land use\/cover changes in the source region of the Upper Blue Nile Basin, Ethiopia","volume":"575","author":"Woldesenbet","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"489","article-title":"Effect of land use change on lake water quality in different buffer zones","volume":"13","author":"Su","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appl. Ecol. Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7492","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1405557111","article-title":"Projected land-use change impacts on ecosystem services in the United States","volume":"111","author":"Lawler","year":"2014","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2411","DOI":"10.3390\/rs5052411","article-title":"Land use\/land cover change analysis using object-based classification approach in Munessa-Shashemene landscape of the Ethiopian highlands","volume":"5","author":"Kindu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4090","DOI":"10.1007\/s10661-014-4090-1","article-title":"Dynamics of land use and land cover and its effects on hydrologic responses: Case study of the Gilgel Tekeze catchment in the highlands of Northern Ethiopia","volume":"187","author":"Haregeweyn","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ. Monit. Assess."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1581","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2017.10.034","article-title":"Quantifying longitudinal land use change from land degradation to rehabilitation in the headwaters of Tekeze-Atbara Basin, Ethiopia","volume":"622\u2013623","author":"Gebremicael","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejrh.2017.11.005","article-title":"Impacts of land use and land cover change on surface runoff, discharge and low flows: Evidence from East Africa","volume":"15","author":"Guzha","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Hydrol. Reg. Stud."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1002\/hyp.5542","article-title":"Dynamics in land cover and its effect on stream flow in the Chemoga watershed, Blue Nile basin, Ethiopia","volume":"19","author":"Bewket","year":"2005","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1475-4959.2000.tb00006.x","article-title":"The climate and hydrology of the Upper Blue Nile River","volume":"166","author":"Conway","year":"2000","journal-title":"Geogr. J."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, Y., Fan, J., Hu, Z., Shao, Q., Zhang, L., and Yu, H. (2015). Influence of land use patterns on evapotranspiration and its components in a temperate grassland ecosystem. Adv. Meteorol., 2015.","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/452603"},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"125","article-title":"The impact of land use on hydrological characteristics in Kaligarang Watershed","volume":"8","author":"Budiyanto","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-14-413-2014","article-title":"GIS and remote sensing techniques for the assessment of land use change impact on flood hydrology: The case study of Yialias basin in Cyprus","volume":"14","author":"Alexakis","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3841","DOI":"10.3390\/w6123841","article-title":"Flood frequency analysis for the annual peak flows simulated by an event-based rainfall-runoff model in an urban drainage basin","volume":"6","author":"Ahn","year":"2014","journal-title":"Water"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marpolbul.2016.06.073","article-title":"Estimating the input of submarine groundwater discharge (SGD) and SGD-derived nutrients in Geoje Bay, Korea using 222Rn-Si mass balance model","volume":"110","author":"Hwang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mar. Pollut. Bull."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4097","DOI":"10.1002\/hyp.7011","article-title":"Runoff curve numbers for steep hillslopes with natural vegetation in semi-arid tropical highlands, northern Ethiopia","volume":"22","author":"Descheemaeker","year":"2008","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1880","DOI":"10.1002\/hyp.7628","article-title":"Impact of soil and water conservation measures on catchment hydrological response\u2014A case in north Ethiopia","volume":"24","author":"Nyssen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1300","DOI":"10.1002\/2014WR016168","article-title":"Impacts of rainfall spatial variability on hydrogeological response","volume":"51","author":"Navarro","year":"2015","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1001","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aqpro.2015.02.126","article-title":"A review on hydrological models","volume":"4","author":"Devia","year":"2015","journal-title":"Aquat. Procedia"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1071\/SR9890511","article-title":"A Review of the USDA SCS Curve Number Method","volume":"27","author":"Boughton","year":"1989","journal-title":"Aust. J. Soil Res."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Michel, C., Andr\u00e9assian, V., and Perrin, C. (2005). Soil conservation service curve number method: How to mend a wrong soil moisture accounting procedure?. Water Resour. Res., 41.","DOI":"10.1029\/2004WR003191"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"561","DOI":"10.1002\/hyp.7789","article-title":"Long-term hydrologic simulation using SCS-CN-based improved soil moisture accounting procedure","volume":"25","author":"Durbude","year":"2011","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)1084-0699(1999)4:3(257)","article-title":"Another look at SCS-CN method","volume":"4","author":"Mishra","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Hydrol. Eng."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"567","DOI":"10.1007\/s11269-004-8765-1","article-title":"Evaluation of the SCS-CN-based model incorporating antecedent moisture","volume":"18","author":"Mishra","year":"2004","journal-title":"Water Resour. Manag."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1023099005944","article-title":"A modified SCS-CN method: Characterization and testing","volume":"17","author":"Mishra","year":"2003","journal-title":"Water Resour. Manag."},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"Mishra, S.K., and Singh, V.P. (2013). Soil Conservation Service Curve Number (SCS-CN) Methodology, Springer Science & Business Media."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1172","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envsoft.2005.06.004","article-title":"Implementation of a probabilistic curve number method in the PRZM runoff model","volume":"21","author":"Young","year":"2006","journal-title":"Environ. Model. Softw."},{"key":"ref_66","unstructured":"Ponce, V.M. (1989). Engineering Hydrology: Principles and Practices, Prentice Hall."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3131","DOI":"10.1002\/hyp.1092","article-title":"Daily streamflow modelling and assessment based on the curve-number technique","volume":"16","author":"Choi","year":"2002","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"738","DOI":"10.1016\/S1002-0160(11)60177-X","article-title":"Application of the SCS-CN model to runoff estimation in a small watershed with high spatial heterogeneity","volume":"21","author":"Bo","year":"2011","journal-title":"Pedosphere"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1002\/ldr.2276","article-title":"Model-based characterization and monitoring of runoff and soil erosion in response to land use\/land cover changes in the Modjo watershed, Ethiopia","volume":"26","author":"Gessesse","year":"2015","journal-title":"Land Degrad. Dev."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1127\/0372-8854\/2008\/0052-0291","article-title":"Effects of region-wide soil and water conservation in semi-arid areas: The case of northern Ethiopia","volume":"52","author":"Nyssen","year":"2008","journal-title":"Zeitschrift f\u00fcr Geomorphologie"},{"key":"ref_71","unstructured":"Lemenih, M. (2004). Effects of Land Use Changes on Soil Quality and Native Flora Degradation and Restoration in the Highlands of Ethiopia. [Ph.D. Thesis, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences]."},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"Hawando, T. (1997). Desertification in Ethiopian Highlands. RALA Report, Agricultural Research Institute (RALA)."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"815","DOI":"10.1007\/s002670010190","article-title":"Land degradation: A challenge to Ethiopia","volume":"27","author":"Taddese","year":"2001","journal-title":"Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1353\/nas.2005.0020","article-title":"Deforestation, wood famine, and environmental degradation in Ethiopia\u2019s highland ecosystems: Urgent need for action","volume":"8","author":"Teketay","year":"2001","journal-title":"Northeast Afr. Stud."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hengl, T., de Jesus, J.M., Heuvelink, G.B., Gonzalez, M.R., Kilibarda, M., Blagoti\u0107, A., Shangguan, W., Wright, M.N., Geng, X., and Bauer-Marschallinger, B. (2017). SoilGrids250m: Global gridded soil information based on machine learning. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0169748"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2477","DOI":"10.1080\/014311699212137","article-title":"Reducing the effects of misregistration on pixel-level change detection","volume":"20","author":"Stow","year":"1999","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_77","unstructured":"Thom, B. (1994). Special Issue on the October 1993 Conference on Land-Use and Land-Cover in Australia-Living with Global Change-Preface, John Wiley & Sons Ltd."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hailemariam, S.N., Soromessa, T., and Teketay, D. (2016). Land Use and Land Cover Change in the Bale Mountain Eco-Region of Ethiopia during 1985 to 2015. Land, 5.","DOI":"10.3390\/land5040041"},{"key":"ref_79","first-page":"1","article-title":"The Spatio-Temporal Pattern of Urban Green Spaces in Southern Ethiopia","volume":"7","author":"Molla","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Geogr. Inform. Syst."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1016\/j.catena.2013.06.001","article-title":"Evaluating the performance of reservoirs in semi-arid catchments of Tigray: Tradeoff between water harvesting and soil and water conservation","volume":"110","author":"Teka","year":"2013","journal-title":"Catena"},{"key":"ref_81","unstructured":"Hawkins, R.H. (1980, January 21\u201323). Infiltration and curve numbers: Some pragmatic and theoretic relationships. Proceedings of the Symposium on Watershed Management, Boise, ID, USA."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)0733-9437(2005)131:3(282)","article-title":"Statistical guidelines for curve number generation","volume":"131","author":"Schneider","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Irrig. Drain. Eng. ASCE"},{"key":"ref_83","unstructured":"Cronshey, R. (1986). Urban Hydrology for Small Watersheds."},{"key":"ref_84","unstructured":"Dingman, S.L. (1994). Physical Hydrology, Prentice Hall Inc."},{"key":"ref_85","unstructured":"Garg, S.K. (1973). Hydrology and Water Resources Engineering, Publishers."},{"key":"ref_86","unstructured":"Garg, S. (2005). Optimal Design of Furrow Irrigation System, Punjab Agricultural University."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1016\/j.catena.2012.12.007","article-title":"GIS-based hydrological zones and soil geo-database of Ethiopia","volume":"104","author":"Berhanu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Catena"},{"key":"ref_88","first-page":"36","article-title":"Estimation of Runoff Using SCS-CN and GIS method in ungauged watershed: A case study of Kharadya mill watershed, India","volume":"3","author":"Ningaraju","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Eng. Res. Sci."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1007\/s12040-009-0034-5","article-title":"SCS-CN and GIS-based approach for identifying potential water harvesting sites in the Kali Watershed, Mahi River Basin, India","volume":"118","author":"Ramakrishnan","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Blokhuis, W. (1996). Classification of Vertisols, in Developments in Soil Science, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-2481(96)80005-5"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-1694(98)00109-7","article-title":"Potential evaporation functions compared on US watersheds: Possible implications for global-scale water balance and terrestrial ecosystem modeling","volume":"207","author":"Federer","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170012","DOI":"10.1038\/sdata.2017.12","article-title":"A land data assimilation system for sub-Saharan Africa food and water security applications","volume":"4","author":"McNally","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Sci. Data"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agee.2012.09.012","article-title":"Drought vulnerability drives land-use and land cover changes in the Rift Valley dry lands of Ethiopia","volume":"164","author":"Biazin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Agric. Ecosyst. Environ."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1155","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2019.01.085","article-title":"Attributing the hydrological impact of different land use types and their long-term dynamics through combining parsimonious hydrological modelling, alteration analysis and PLSR analysis","volume":"660","author":"Gebremicael","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/S2095-6339(15)30002-2","article-title":"Long-term hydrological impacts of land use\/land cover change from 1984 to 2010 in the Little River Watershed, Tennessee","volume":"2","author":"Zhu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. Soil Water Conserv. Res."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/11\/16\/1905\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T13:11:17Z","timestamp":1760188277000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/11\/16\/1905"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,15]]},"references-count":95,"journal-issue":{"issue":"16","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,8]]}},"alternative-id":["rs11161905"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs11161905","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,15]]}}}