{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,29]],"date-time":"2026-05-29T19:20:20Z","timestamp":1780082420769,"version":"3.54.0"},"reference-count":80,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,20]],"date-time":"2019-08-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1566259200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"This research was supported by the GIS research group, Ton Duc Thang university, Ho Chi Minh city, Vietnam","award":["HDLD\/2018"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["HDLD\/2018"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Mountainous areas are highly prone to a variety of nature-triggered disasters, which often cause disabling harm, death, destruction, and damage. In this work, an attempt was made to develop an accurate multi-hazard exposure map for a mountainous area (Asara watershed, Iran), based on state-of-the art machine learning techniques. Hazard modeling for avalanches, rockfalls, and floods was performed using three state-of-the-art models\u2014support vector machine (SVM), boosted regression tree (BRT), and generalized additive model (GAM). Topo-hydrological and geo-environmental factors were used as predictors in the models. A flood dataset (n = 133 flood events) was applied, which had been prepared using Sentinel-1-based processing and ground-based information. In addition, snow avalanche (n = 58) and rockfall (n = 101) data sets were used. The data set of each hazard type was randomly divided to two groups: Training (70%) and validation (30%). Model performance was evaluated by the true skill score (TSS) and the area under receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) criteria. Using an exposure map, the multi-hazard map was converted into a multi-hazard exposure map. According to both validation methods, the SVM model showed the highest accuracy for avalanches (AUC = 92.4%, TSS = 0.72) and rockfalls (AUC = 93.7%, TSS = 0.81), while BRT demonstrated the best performance for flood hazards (AUC = 94.2%, TSS = 0.80). Overall, multi-hazard exposure modeling revealed that valleys and areas close to the Chalous Road, one of the most important roads in Iran, were associated with high and very high levels of risk. The proposed multi-hazard exposure framework can be helpful in supporting decision making on mountain social-ecological systems facing multiple hazards.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11161943","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,21]],"date-time":"2019-08-21T11:19:06Z","timestamp":1566386346000},"page":"1943","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":84,"title":["Multi-Hazard Exposure Mapping Using Machine Learning Techniques: A Case Study from Iran"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5672-8525","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Omid","family":"Rahmati","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Geographic Information Science Research Group, Ton Duc Thang University, Ho Chi Minh 758307, Viet Nam"},{"name":"Faculty of Environment and Labour Safety, Ton Duc Thang University, Ho Chi Minh 758307, Viet Nam"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Saleh","family":"Yousefi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Soil Conservation and Water Management Research Department, Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari Agricultural and Natural Resources Research and Education Center, AREEO, Shahrekord 8814843114, Iran"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7978-0040","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zahra","family":"Kalantari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physical Geography and Bolin Centre for Climate Research, Stockholm University, SE-106 91 Stockholm, Sweden"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0782-6740","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Evelyn","family":"Uuemaa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geography, University of Tartu, Vanemuise St. 46, 51003 Tartu, Estonia"},{"name":"NIWA, Gate 10 Silverdale Road, Hillcrest, Hamilton 3216, New Zealand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1392-4275","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Teimur","family":"Teimurian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Natural Resources, University of Tehran, Karaj 31587-77871, Iran"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4129-9080","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Saskia","family":"Keesstra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Soil Physics and Land Management Group, Wageningen University, Droevendaalsesteeg 4, 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6422-2847","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tien","family":"Pham","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Agricultural Research and Ecological Studies (CARES), Vietnam National University of Agriculture (VNUA), Trau Quy, Gia Lam, Hanoi 100000, Vietnam"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5161-6479","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dieu","family":"Tien Bui","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Research and Development, Duy Tan University, Da Nang 550000, Viet Nam"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2127","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-15-2127-2015","article-title":"A spatiotemporal multi-hazard exposure assessment based on property data","volume":"15","author":"Fuchs","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1007\/s10584-011-0331-2","article-title":"A trend analysis of normalized insured damage from natural disasters","volume":"113","author":"Barthel","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Munich, R.E., Kron, W., and Schuck, A. (2014). Topics Geo: Natural Catastrophes 2013: Analyses, Assessments, Positions, Munchener Ruckversicherungs-Gesellschaft."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bell, R., and Glade, T. (2012). Multi-hazard analysis in natural risk assessments. Landslides, WIT Press.","DOI":"10.2495\/978-1-84564-650-9\/01"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2016.07.051","article-title":"Predicting and communicating flood risk of transport infrastructure based on watershed characteristics","volume":"182","author":"Michielsen","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McGuire, K.J., and McDonnell, J.J. (2010). Hydrological connectivity of hillslopes and streams: Characteristic time scales and nonlinearities. Water Resour. Res., 46.","DOI":"10.1029\/2010WR009341"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2010.12.020","article-title":"Sensitivity of a mountain basin flash flood to initial wetness condition and rainfall variability","volume":"402","author":"Nikolopoulos","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1015212626232","article-title":"Snow avalanche hazards and management in Canada: challenges and progress","volume":"26","author":"Jamieson","year":"2002","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Corona, C., and Stoffel, M. (2017). Snow and Ice Avalanches. International Encyclopedia of Geography: People, the Earth, Environment and Technology, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118786352.wbieg1123"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coldregions.2018.10.002","article-title":"Reconstructing snow-avalanche extent using remote sensing and dendrogeomorphology in Par\u00e2ng Mountains","volume":"157","author":"Man","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cold Reg. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"965","DOI":"10.1007\/s11069-012-0217-2","article-title":"Application of fuzzy logic and analytical hierarchy process (AHP) to landslide susceptibility mapping at Haraz watershed, Iran","volume":"63","author":"Pourghasemi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1016\/j.catena.2015.07.020","article-title":"A new hybrid model using step-wise weight assessment ratio analysis (SWARA) technique and adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS) for regional landslide hazard assessment in Iran","volume":"135","author":"Dehnavi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Catena"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Suresh, D., Yarrakula, K., Venkateswarlu, B., Mohanty, B., and Manupati, V. (2019). Risk Mapping Analysis With Geographic Information Systems for Landslides Using Supply Chain. Emerging Applications in Supply Chains for Sustainable Business Development, IGI Global.","DOI":"10.4018\/978-1-5225-5424-0.ch008"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"447","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-016-0711-9","article-title":"Spatial Prediction of Rainfall-induced Landslides for the Lao Cai area (Vietnam) Using a Novel hybrid Intelligent Approach of Least Squares Support Vector Machines Inference Model and Artificial Bee Colony Optimization","volume":"14","author":"Hoang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Landslides"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1007\/s11069-006-9065-2","article-title":"Major flood disasters in Europe: 1950\u20132005","volume":"42","author":"Barredo","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1000","DOI":"10.1080\/19475705.2015.1045043","article-title":"Flood hazard zoning in Yasooj region, Iran, using GIS and multi-criteria decision analysis","volume":"7","author":"Rahmati","year":"2015","journal-title":"Geomat. Nat. Hazards Risk"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2018.03.089","article-title":"Novel forecasting approaches using combination of machine learning and statistical models for flood susceptibility mapping","volume":"217","author":"Valavi","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3391","DOI":"10.5194\/gmd-10-3391-2017","article-title":"A Bayesian framework based on a Gaussian mixture model and radial-basis-function Fisher discriminant analysis (BayGmmKda V1. 1) for spatial prediction of floods","volume":"10","author":"Hoang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Geosci. Model Dev."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2004.09.023","article-title":"Linking debris-flow hazard assessments with geomorphology","volume":"66","author":"Glade","year":"2005","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1007\/s11069-007-9210-6","article-title":"Rain-induced debris and mudflow triggering factors assessment in the Santiago cordilleran foothills, Central Chile","volume":"47","author":"Padilla","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards"},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"153","article-title":"Hazard Risk of Debris\/Mud Flow Events in Georgia and Methodological Approaches for Management","volume":"Volume 5","author":"Tsereteli","year":"2018","journal-title":"IAEG\/AEG Annual Meeting Proceedings, San Francisco, California"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1016\/S0048-9697(03)00007-X","article-title":"Runoff erosion and nutrient depletion in five Mediterranean soils of NE Spain under different land use","volume":"309","author":"Pardini","year":"2003","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gsf.2011.11.003","article-title":"Estimation of soil erosion risk within a small mountainous sub-watershed in Kerala, India, using Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) and geo-information technology","volume":"3","author":"Prasannakumar","year":"2012","journal-title":"Geosci. Front."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.catena.2016.02.010","article-title":"Soil water erosion on Mediterranean vineyards: A review","volume":"141","author":"Prosdocimi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Catena"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"615","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-12-615-2012","article-title":"Rockfall hazard and risk assessments along roads at a regional scale: Example in Swiss Alps","volume":"12","author":"Michoud","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1639","DOI":"10.1007\/s11069-012-0321-3","article-title":"A GIS-based logistic regression model in rock-fall susceptibility mapping along a mountainous road: Salavat Abad case study, Kurdistan, Iran","volume":"64","author":"Shirzadi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1593","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-017-0807-x","article-title":"Potential rock fall source areas identification and rock fall propagation in the province of Potenza territory using an empirically distributed approach","volume":"14","author":"Losasso","year":"2017","journal-title":"Landslides"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"663","DOI":"10.1007\/s11069-017-3070-5","article-title":"A conceptual model of avalanche hazard","volume":"90","author":"Statham","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.3189\/172756411797252121","article-title":"Sensitivity of snow avalanche simulations to digital elevation model quality and resolution","volume":"52","author":"Christen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ann. Glaciol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"764","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2017.07.198","article-title":"Performance assessment of individual and ensemble data-mining techniques for gully erosion modeling","volume":"609","author":"Pourghasemi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2006.06.040","article-title":"Runoff and sediment yield from rural roads, trails and settlements in the upper Konto catchment, East Java, Indonesia","volume":"87","author":"Rijsdijk","year":"2007","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Spitz, W., Lagasse, P., Schumm, S., and Zevenbergen, L. (2001). A Methodology for Predicting Channel Migration NCHRP Project No. 24\u201316. Wetlands Engineering & River Restoration 2001, American Society of Civil Engineers.","DOI":"10.1061\/40581(2001)106"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2019.01.009","article-title":"Assessing flood probability for transportation infrastructure based on catchment characteristics, sediment connectivity and remotely sensed soil moisture","volume":"661","author":"Kalantari","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1007\/s11069-006-9038-5","article-title":"Mountain hazards and the resilience of social\u2013ecological systems: lessons learned in India and Canada","volume":"41","author":"Gardner","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"386","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2016.12.147","article-title":"Flood probability quantification for road infrastructure: Data-driven spatial-statistical approach and case study applications","volume":"581\u2013582","author":"Kalantari","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2779","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-13-2779-2013","article-title":"Regional-scale analysis of high-mountain multi-hazard and risk indicators in the Pamir (Tajikistan) with GRASS GIS","volume":"13","author":"Gruber","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"823","DOI":"10.1007\/s00267-017-0912-6","article-title":"Natural Hazard Susceptibility Assessment for Road Planning Using Spatial Multi-Criteria Analysis","volume":"60","author":"Karlsson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"McClung, D., and Schaerer, P.A. (2006). The Avalanche Handbook, The Mountaineers Books."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1007\/s11069-009-9434-8","article-title":"Avalanche hazard mapping over large undocumented areas","volume":"56","author":"Barbolini","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Van Westen, C.J., and Greiving, S. (2017). Multi-hazard risk assessment and decision making. Environmental Hazards Methodologies for Risk Assessment and Management, IWA publishing.","DOI":"10.2166\/9781780407135_0031"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1007\/s11069-009-9407-y","article-title":"Resilience to natural hazards: a geographic perspective","volume":"53","author":"Zhou","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1895","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-011-1171-0","article-title":"Multi-risk interpretation of natural hazards for settlements of the Hatay province in the east Mediterranean region, Turkey using SRTM DEM","volume":"65","author":"Demirkesen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Environ. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1007\/s11069-015-1713-y","article-title":"Integrated risk assessment of multi-hazards in China","volume":"78","author":"Zhou","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2015.11.011","article-title":"A review of multi-risk methodologies for natural hazards: Consequences and challenges for a climate change impact assessment","volume":"168","author":"Gallina","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1169","DOI":"10.1007\/s11069-011-9721-z","article-title":"Quantitative multi-risk analysis for natural hazards: a framework for multi-risk modelling","volume":"58","author":"Schmidt","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"913","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2016.10.176","article-title":"Evaluating the influence of geo-environmental factors on gully erosion in a semi-arid region of Iran: An integrated framework","volume":"579","author":"Rahmati","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2018.05.065","article-title":"Effects of hydrological events on morphological evolution of a fluvial system","volume":"563","author":"Mirzaee","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Anzai, Y. (2012). Pattern Recognition and Machine Learning, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1016\/j.catena.2016.09.007","article-title":"Hybrid integration of Multilayer Perceptron Neural Networks and machine learning ensembles for landslide susceptibility assessment at Himalayan area (India) using GIS","volume":"149","author":"Pham","year":"2017","journal-title":"Catena A"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1007\/s11069-010-9620-8","article-title":"PFR model and GiT for landslide susceptibility mapping: a case study from Central Alborz, Iran","volume":"57","author":"Jadda","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"901","DOI":"10.1007\/s11069-012-0123-7","article-title":"A survey of challenges in reducing the impact of geological hazards associated with earthquakes in Iran","volume":"62","author":"Hosseini","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1651","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-012-1606-2","article-title":"Stability analysis and supporting system design of a high-steep cut soil slope on an ancient landslide during highway construction of Tehran\u2013Chalus","volume":"67","author":"Wei","year":"2012","journal-title":"Environ. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"487","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1022998512227","article-title":"Snow avalanche hazard in Canada\u2013a review","volume":"28","author":"Stethem","year":"2003","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/j.catena.2010.08.004","article-title":"Spatio-temporal reconstruction of snow avalanche activity using tree rings: Pierres Jean Jeanne avalanche talus, Massif de l\u2019Oisans, France","volume":"83","author":"Christophe","year":"2010","journal-title":"Catena"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1016\/j.catena.2014.10.017","article-title":"Flood susceptibility assessment using GIS-based support vector machine model with different kernel types","volume":"125","author":"Tehrany","year":"2015","journal-title":"Catena"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1303","DOI":"10.1007\/s11069-015-2024-z","article-title":"Snow avalanche hazard assessment and risk management in northern Quebec, eastern Canada","volume":"80","author":"Germain","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1473","DOI":"10.1007\/s11269-017-1589-6","article-title":"Identification of Critical Flood Prone Areas in Data-Scarce and Ungauged Regions: A Comparison of Three Data Mining Models","volume":"31","author":"Rahmati","year":"2017","journal-title":"Water Resour. Manag."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"Clark, T. (2019). Exploring the Link between the Conceptual Model of Avalanche Hazard and the North American Public Avalanche Danger Scale, Simon Fraser University."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1038","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2019.02.422","article-title":"Flash flood susceptibility modeling using an optimized fuzzy rule based feature selection technique and tree based ensemble methods","volume":"668","author":"Tsangaratos","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-006-0047-y","article-title":"Landslide hazard mapping at Selangor, Malaysia using frequency ratio and logistic regression models","volume":"4","author":"Lee","year":"2007","journal-title":"Landslides"},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"Hastie, T., and Tibshirani, R. (1990). Generalized Additive Models, Chapman and Hall\/CRC."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1189","DOI":"10.1214\/aos\/1013203451","article-title":"Greedy Function Approximation: A Gradient Boosting Machine","volume":"29","author":"Friedman","year":"2001","journal-title":"Ann. Stat."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"745","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijforecast.2017.02.003","article-title":"Predicting recessions with boosted regression trees","volume":"33","author":"Fritsche","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Forecast."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"802","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2656.2008.01390.x","article-title":"A working guide to boosted regression trees","volume":"77","author":"Elith","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Anim. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2012.08.015","article-title":"Factor complexity of crash occurrence: An empirical demonstration using boosted regression trees","volume":"61","author":"Chung","year":"2013","journal-title":"Accid. Anal. Prev."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00994018","article-title":"Support vector machines","volume":"20","author":"Vapnik","year":"1995","journal-title":"Mach. Learn"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sch\u00f6lkopf, B., Smola, A.J., and Bach, F. (2002). Learning with Kernels: Support Vector Machines, Regularization, Optimization, and Beyond, MIT press.","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/4175.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1223","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2664.2006.01214.x","article-title":"Assessing the accuracy of species distribution models: prevalence, kappa and the true skill statistic (TSS)","volume":"43","author":"Allouche","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Appl. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1148\/radiology.143.1.7063747","article-title":"The meaning and use of the area under a receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve","volume":"143","author":"Hanley","year":"1982","journal-title":"Radiology"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1106","DOI":"10.1175\/825.1","article-title":"The ROC Curve and the Area under It as Performance Measures","volume":"19","author":"Marzban","year":"2004","journal-title":"Weather Forecast."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2018.12.002","article-title":"Urban flood risk mapping using the GARP and QUEST models: A comparative study of machine learning techniques","volume":"569","author":"Darabi","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dewan, A.M. (2013). Hazards, Risk, and Vulnerability. Floods in a Megacity, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-007-5875-9"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.3189\/172756408787814870","article-title":"Applying machine learning methods to avalanche forecasting","volume":"49","author":"Pozdnoukhov","year":"2008","journal-title":"Ann. Glaciol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coldregions.2014.12.014","article-title":"Robust snow avalanche detection using supervised machine learning with infrasonic sensor arrays","volume":"111","author":"Schoch","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cold Reg. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2009.04.011","article-title":"Predictive mapping of the natural flow regimes of France","volume":"373","author":"Snelder","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Naghibi, S.A., Pourghasemi, H.R., and Dixon, B. (2015). GIS-based groundwater potential mapping using boosted regression tree, classification and regression tree, and random forest machine learning models in Iran. Environ. Monit. Assess., 188.","DOI":"10.1007\/s10661-015-5049-6"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apgeog.2014.04.006","article-title":"GIS-based multi-criteria evaluation to identify potential sites for soil and water conservation techniques in the Ronquillo watershed, northern Peru","volume":"51","author":"Krois","year":"2014","journal-title":"Appl. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1254","DOI":"10.1080\/10106049.2016.1206626","article-title":"GIS-based MCDA\u2013AHP modelling for avalanche susceptibility mapping of Nubra valley region, Indian Himalaya","volume":"32","author":"Kumar","year":"2016","journal-title":"Geocarto Int."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"556","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sbspro.2011.05.169","article-title":"A Case Study on Seasonal Floods in Iran, Watershed of Ghotour Chai Basin","volume":"19","author":"Asgharpour","year":"2011","journal-title":"Procedia-Soc. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"ref_80","unstructured":"Marsh, W.M. (2005). Landscape Planning: Environmental Applications, John Wiley & Sons."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/11\/16\/1943\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T13:12:24Z","timestamp":1760188344000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/11\/16\/1943"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,20]]},"references-count":80,"journal-issue":{"issue":"16","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,8]]}},"alternative-id":["rs11161943"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs11161943","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,20]]}}}