{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T03:45:02Z","timestamp":1760240702889,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":132,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,20]],"date-time":"2019-08-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1566259200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["U1603242","41601440"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U1603242","41601440"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Youth Innovation Promotion Association Foundation of the Chinese Academy of Sciences","award":["2018476"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2018476"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100013494","name":"West Light Foundation of the Chinese Academy of Sciences","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2016-QNXZ-B-11"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2016-QNXZ-B-11"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100013494","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>To facilitate the advances in Sentinel-2A products for land cover from Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) and Landsat imagery, Sentinel-2A MultiSpectral Instrument Level-1C (MSIL1C) images are investigated for large-scale vegetation mapping in an arid land environment that is located in the Ili River delta, Kazakhstan. For accurate classification purposes, multi-resolution segmentation (MRS) based extended object-guided morphological profiles (EOMPs) are proposed and then compared with conventional morphological profiles (MPs), MPs with partial reconstruction (MPPR), object-guided MPs (OMPs), OMPs with mean values (OMPsM), and object-oriented (OO)-based image classification techniques. Popular classifiers, such as C4.5, an extremely randomized decision tree (ERDT), random forest (RaF), rotation forest (RoF), classification via random forest regression (CVRFR), ExtraTrees, and radial basis function (RBF) kernel-based support vector machines (SVMs) are adopted to answer the question of whether nested dichotomies (ND) and ensembles of ND (END) are truly superior to direct and error-correcting output code (ECOC) multiclass classification frameworks. Finally, based on the results, the following conclusions are drawn: 1) the superior performance of OO-based techniques over MPs, MPPR, OMPs, and OMPsM is clear for Sentinel-2A MSIL1C image classification, while the best results are achieved by the proposed EOMPs; 2) the superior performance of ND, ND with class balancing (NDCB), ND with data balancing (NDDB), ND with random-pair selection (NDRPS), and ND with further centroid (NDFC) over direct and ECOC frameworks is not confirmed, especially in the cases of using weak classifiers for low-dimensional datasets; 3) from computationally efficient, high accuracy, redundant to data dimensionality and easy of implementations points of view, END, ENDCB, ENDDB, and ENDRPS are alternative choices to direct and ECOC frameworks; 4) surprisingly, because in the ensemble learning (EL) theorem, \u201cweaker\u201d classifiers (ERDT here) always have a better chance of reaching the trade-off between diversity and accuracy than \u201cstronger\u201d classifies (RaF, ExtraTrees, and SVM here), END with ERDT (END-ERDT) achieves the best performance with less than a 0.5% difference in the overall accuracy (OA) values, but is 100 to 10000 times faster than END with RaF and ExtraTrees, and ECOC with SVM while using different datasets with various dimensions; and, 5) Sentinel-2A MSIL1C is better choice than the land cover products from MODIS and Landsat imagery for vegetation species mapping in an arid land environment, where the vegetation species are critically important, but sparsely distributed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11161953","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,21]],"date-time":"2019-08-21T11:19:06Z","timestamp":1566386346000},"page":"1953","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["Direct, ECOC, ND and END Frameworks\u2014Which One Is the Best? An Empirical Study of Sentinel-2A MSIL1C Image Classification for Arid-Land Vegetation Mapping in the Ili River Delta, Kazakhstan"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9091-6033","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alim","family":"Samat","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Desert and Oasis Ecology, Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography, CAS, Urumqi 830011, China"},{"name":"Research Center for Ecology and Environment of Central Asia, CAS, Urumqi 830011, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7321-4590","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Naoto","family":"Yokoya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RIKEN Center for Advanced Intelligence Project, Tokyo 103-0027, Japan"}]},{"given":"Peijun","family":"Du","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geographical Information Science, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1612-4844","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sicong","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Surveying and Geoinformatics, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8233-8640","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Long","family":"Ma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Desert and Oasis Ecology, Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography, CAS, Urumqi 830011, China"},{"name":"Research Center for Ecology and Environment of Central Asia, CAS, Urumqi 830011, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8111-7259","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yongxiao","family":"Ge","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Desert and Oasis Ecology, Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography, CAS, Urumqi 830011, China"},{"name":"Research Center for Ecology and Environment of Central Asia, CAS, Urumqi 830011, China"}]},{"given":"Gulnura","family":"Issanova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Geography and Environmental Sciences, Al-Farabi Kazakh National University, Almaty 050040, Kazakhstan"},{"name":"Research Center for Ecology and Environment of Central Asia (Almaty), CAS, Almaty 050060, Kazakhstan"}]},{"given":"Abdula","family":"Saparov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"U.U. Uspanov Kazakh Research Institute of Soil Science and Agrochemistry, Almaty 050060, Kazakhstan"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8483-1554","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jilili","family":"Abuduwaili","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Desert and Oasis Ecology, Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography, CAS, Urumqi 830011, China"},{"name":"Research Center for Ecology and Environment of Central Asia, CAS, Urumqi 830011, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}]},{"given":"Cong","family":"Lin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geographical Information Science, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(98)00036-4","article-title":"Monitoring seasonal dynamics of arid land vegetation using AVIRIS data","volume":"65","author":"Chen","year":"1998","journal-title":"Remote Sens. 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